Name: Eudemian Ethics, Book II
Author: Aristotle

Susemihl (Teubner, 1884) · Solomon (1915)

Greek line numbers are exact. The translations carry no Bekker numbers of their own, so those beside the English are aligned to the Greek: upright = fixed (anchored to this point in the text), italic grey = approximate (interpolated estimate).

Book 2,Chapter 1 (1218b31–1220a37)

1218b

μετὰ δὲ ταῦτ' ἄλλην λαβοῦσιν ἀρχὴν περὶ τῶν ἑπομένων

λεκτέον. πάντα δὴ τὰ ἀγαθὰ ἢ ἐκτὸς ἢ <ἐν> ψυχῇ, καὶ τούτων

αἱρετώτερα τὰ ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ, καθάπερ διαιρούμεθα καὶ ἐν τοῖς

ἐξωτερικοῖς λόγοις· φρόνησις γὰρ καὶ ἀρετὴ καὶ ἡδονὴ ἐν ψυχῇ,

35 ὧν ἢ ἔνια ἢ πάντα τέλος εἶναι δοκεῖ πᾶσιν. τῶν δὲ ἐν ψυχῇ

τὰ μὲν ἕξεις ἢ δυνάμεις εἰσί, τὰ δ' ἐνέργειαι καὶ κινήσεις.

ταῦτα δὴ οὕτως ὑποκείσθω καὶ περὶ ἀρετῆς, ὅτι ἐστὶν

ἡ βελτίστη διάθεσις ἢ ἕξις ἢ δύναμις ἑκάστων, ὅσων ἐστί

After this let us start from a new beginning and speak about what follows from it. All goods are either outside or in the soul, and of these those in the soul are more desirable; this distinction we make even in our popular discussions. For prudence, virtue, and pleasure are in the soul, and some or all of these seem to 35all to be the end. But of the contents of the soul some are states or faculties, others activities and movements. Let this then be assumed, and also that virtue is the best state or condition or faculty of all things that have a use and work.

1219a

1 τις χρῆσις ἢ ἔργον. δῆλον δ' ἐκ τῆς ἐπαγωγῆς. ἐπὶ

πάντων γὰρ οὕτω τίθεμεν. οἷον ἱματίου ἀρετὴ ἐστίν· καὶ

γὰρ ἔργον τι καὶ χρῆσις ἐστίν· καὶ ἡ βελτίστη ἕξις τοῦ ἱματίου

ἀρετὴ ἐστίν. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ πλοίου καὶ οἰκίας καὶ τῶν

5 ἄλλων. ὥστε καὶ ψυχῆς· ἔστι γάρ τι ἔργον αὐτῆς.

καὶ τῆς βελτίονος δὴ ἕξεως ἔστω βέλτιον τὸ ἔργον· καὶ ὡς

ἔχουσιν. αἱ ἕξεις πρὸς ἀλλήλας, οὕτω καὶ τὰ ἔργα τὰ ἀπὸ

τούτων πρὸς ἄλληλα ἐχέτω. καὶ τέλος ἑκάστου τὸ ἔργον. —

φανερὸν τοίνυν ἐκ τούτων ὅτι βέλτιον τὸ ἔργον τῆς ἕξεως·

10 τὸ γὰρ τέλος ἄριστον ὡς τέλος· ὑπόκειται γὰρ τέλος τὸ

βέλτιστον καὶ τὸ ἔσχατον, οὗ ἕνεκα τἆλλα πάντα. ὅτι μὲν

τοίνυν τὸ ἔργον βέλτιον τῆς ἕξεως καὶ τῆς διαθέσεως, δῆλον·

ἀλλὰ τὸ ἔργον λέγεται διχῶς. τῶν μὲν γάρ ἐστιν

ἕτερόν τι τὸ ἔργον παρὰ τὴν χρῆσιν, οἷον οἰκοδομικῆς οἰκία

15 ἀλλ' οὐκ οἰκοδόμησις καὶ ἰατρικῆς ὑγίεια ἀλλ' οὐχ ὑγίανσις

οὐδ' ἰάτρευσις, τῶν δ' ἡ χρῆσις ἔργον, οἷον ὄψεως ὅρασις

καὶ μαθηματικῆς ἐπιστήμης θεωρία. ὥστ' ἀνάγκη, ὧν ἔργον

ἡ χρῆσις, τὴν χρῆσιν βέλτιον εἶναι τῆς ἕξεως. —τούτων

δὲ τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον διωρισμένων, λέγομεν ὅτι <ταὐτὸ> τὸ ἔργον

20 τοῦ πράγματος καὶ τῆς ἀρετῆς, ἀλλ' οὐχ ὡσαύτως. οἷον σκυτοτομικῆς

καὶ σκυτεύσεως ὑπόδημα· εἰ δή τίς ἐστιν ἀρετὴ

σκυτικῆς καὶ σπουδαίου σκυτέως, τὸ ἔργον ἐστὶ σπουδαῖον

ὑπόδημα. τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων. —ἔτι

ἔστω ψυχῆς ἔργον τὸ ζῆν ποιεῖν, τοῦ δὲ χρῆσις καὶ ἐγρήγορσις·

25 ὁ γὰρ ὕπνος ἀργία τις καὶ ἡσυχία. ὥστ' ἐπεὶ τὸ

ἔργον ἀνάγκη ἓν καὶ ταὐτὸ εἶναι τῆς ψυχῆς καὶ τῆς ἀρετῆς,

ἔργον ἂν εἴη τῆς ἀρετῆς ζωὴ σπουδαία. τοῦτ' ἄρα ἐστὶ τὸ

τέλεον ἀγαθόν, ὅπερ ἦν ἡ εὐδαιμονία. δῆλον δὲ ἐκ τῶν

ὑποκειμένων (ἦν μὲν γὰρ ἡ εὐδαιμονία τὸ ἄριστον, τὰ δὲ

30 τέλη ἐν ψυχῇ καὶ τὰ ἄριστα τῶν ἀγαθῶν, ** αὐτὴ δὲ ἢ

ἕξις ἢ ἐνέργεια), ἐπεὶ βέλτιον ἡ ἐνέργεια τῆς διαθέσεως

καὶ τῆς βελτίστης ἕξεως ἡ βελτίστη ἐνέργεια, ἡ δ' ἀρετὴ

βελτίστη ἕξις, τῆς ἀρετῆς ἐνέργειαν τῆς ψυχῆς ἄριστον

εἶναι. ἦν δὲ καὶ ἡ εὐδαιμονία τὸ ἄριστον. ἔστιν ἄρα ἡ

35 εὐδαιμονία ψυχῆς ἀγαθῆς ἐνέργεια. ἐπεὶ δὲ ἦν ἡ εὐδαιμονία

τέλεόν τι, καὶ ἔστι ζωὴ καὶ τελέα καὶ ἀτελής, καὶ

ἀρετὴ ὡσαύτως (ἣ μὲν γὰρ ὅλη, ἣ δὲ μόριον), ἡ δὲ τῶν

ἀτελῶν ἐνέργεια ἀτελής, εἴη ἂν ἡ εὐδαιμονία ζωῆς τελείας

ἐνέργεια κατ' ἀρετὴν τελείαν.

40 ὅτι δὲ τὸ γένος καὶ τὸν ὅρον αὐτῆς λέγομεν καλῶς, μαρτύρια

1This is clear by induction; for in all cases we lay this down: e.g. a garment has an excellence, for it has a work and use, and the best state of the garment is its excellence. Similarly a vessel, house, or anything else has an excellence; therefore so also has the soul, for it has a work. And let us 5assume that the better state has the better work; and as the states are to one another, so let us assume the corresponding works to be to one another. And the work of anything is its end; it is clear, therefore, from this that the work is better than the state; for the end is best, as being end: for we assume the best, the final stage, to be the end for the sake of which all else 10exists. That the work, then, is better than the state or condition is plain. But 'work' has two senses; for some things have a work beyond mere employment, as architecture has a house and not the act of building, medicine health and not the act of curing and restoring to health; while the work of other things is just their employment, e.g. of vision seeing and of mathematical 15science contemplation. Hence, necessarily, in those whose work is their employment the employment is more valuable than the state. Having made these distinctions, we say that the work of a thing is also the work of its excellence, only not in the same sense, e.g. a shoe is the work both of the art of cobbling and of the action of cobbling. If, then, the art of cobbling and the 20good cobbler have an excellence, their work is a good shoe: and similarly with everything else. Further, let the work of the soul be to produce living, this consisting in employment and being awake—for slumber is a sort of inactivity and rest. Therefore, since the work must be one and the same both for the soul and for its excellence, the work of the excellence of the soul 25would be a good life. This, then, is the complete good, which (as we saw) was happiness. And it is clear from our assumptions (for these were that happiness was the best of things, and ends and the best goods were in the soul; and it is itself either a state or an activity), since the activity is better than the state, and the best activity than the best state, and virtue is the 30best state, that the activity of the virtue of the soul is the best thing. But happiness, we saw, was the best of things; therefore happiness is the activity of a good soul. But since happiness was something complete, and living is either complete or incomplete and so also virtue—one virtue being a whole, the other a part—and the activity of what is incomplete is itself incomplete, 35therefore happiness would be the activity of a complete life in accordance with complete virtue. And that we have rightly stated its genus and definition common opinions prove. For to do well and to live well is held to be identical with being happy, but each of these— living and doing—is an employment, an activity; for the practical life is one of using or employing, e.g.

1219b

1 τὰ δοκοῦντα πᾶσιν ἡμῖν. τό τε γὰρ εὖ πράττειν καὶ τὸ εὖ

ζῆν τὸ αὐτὸ τῷ εὐδαιμονεῖν, ὧν ἕκαστον χρῆσίς ἐστι καὶ ἐνέργεια,

καὶ ἡ ζωὴ καὶ ἡ πρᾶξις (καὶ γὰρ ἡ πρακτικὴ χρηστικὴ

ἐστίν· ὁ μὲν γὰρ χαλκεὺς ποιεῖ χαλινόν, χρῆται δ' ὁ ἱππικός)

5 καὶ τὸ μήτε μίαν ἡμέραν εἶναι εὐδαίμονα μήτε παῖδα μήθ'

ἡλικίαν πᾶσαν (διὸ καὶ τὸ Σόλωνος ἔχει καλῶς, τὸ μὴ

ζῶντ' εὐδαιμονίζειν, ἀλλ' ὅταν λάβῃ τέλος· οὐθὲν γὰρ ἀτελὲς

εὔδαιμον· οὐ γὰρ ὅλον)· ἔτι δ' οἱ ἔπαινοι τῆς ἀρετῆς διὰ

τὰ ἔργα, καὶ τὰ ἐγκώμια τῶν ἔργων· καὶ στεφανοῦνται οἱ

10 νικῶντες, ἀλλ' οὐχ οἱ δυνάμενοι νικᾶν, μὴ νικῶντες δέ· καὶ

τὸ κρίνειν ἐκ τῶν ἔργων ὁποῖός τις ἐστίν· ἔτι διὰ τί ἡ

εὐδαιμονία οὐκ ἐπαινεῖται; ὅτι διὰ ταύτην τἆλλα, ἢ τῷ

εἰς ταύτην ἀναφέρεσθαι ἢ τῷ μόρια εἶναι αὐτῆς. διὸ ἕτερον

εὐδαιμονισμὸς καὶ ἔπαινος καὶ ἐγκώμιον. τὸ μὲν γὰρ

15 ἐγκώμιον λόγος τοῦ καθ' ἕκαστον ἔργου· ὁ δ' ἔπαινος τοιοῦτον

εἶναι καθόλου· ὁ δ' εὐδαιμονισμὸς τέλους. —καὶ τὸ ἀπορούμενον

δ' ἐνίοτε δῆλον ἐκ τούτων, διὰ τί ποτ' οὐθὲν βελτίους οἱ

σπουδαῖοι τῶν φαύλων τὸν ἥμισυν τοῦ βίου· ὅμοιοι γὰρ καθεύδοντες

πάντες. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι ἀργία ψυχῆς ὁ ὕπνος, ἀλλ'

20 οὐκ ἐνέργεια. διὸ καὶ ἄλλο εἴ τι μόριόν ἐστι ψυχῆς, οἷον

τὸ θρεπτικόν, ἡ τούτου ἀρετὴ οὐκ ἔστι μόριον τῆς ὅλης ἀρετῆς,

ὥσπερ οὐδ' ἡ τοῦ σώματος· ἐν τῷ ὕπνῳ γὰρ μᾶλλον ἐνεργεῖ

τὸ θρεπτικόν, τὸ δ' αἰσθητικὸν καὶ ὀρεκτικὸν ἀτελῆ ἐν τῷ

ὕπνῳ. ὅσον δὲ τοῦ πῃ κινεῖσθαι μετέχουσι, καὶ αἱ φαντασίαι

25 βελτίους αἱ τῶν σπουδαίων, ἐὰν μὴ διὰ νόσον ἢ πήρωσιν.

μετὰ ταῦτα περὶ ψυχῆς θεωρητέον· ἡ γὰρ ἀρετὴ ψυχῆς,

οὐ κατὰ συμβεβηκός. ἐπεὶ δ' ἀνθρωπίνην ἀρετὴν ζητοῦμεν,

ὑποκείσθω δύο μέρη ψυχῆς τὰ λόγου μετέχοντα,

οὐ τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον μετέχειν λόγου ἄμφω, ἀλλὰ τὸ

30 μὲν τῷ ἐπιτάττειν, τὸ δὲ τῷ πείθεσθαι καὶ ἀκούειν πεφυκέναι·

εἰ δέ τί ἐστιν ἑτέρως ἄλογον, ἀφείσθω τοῦτο τὸ μόριον.

διαφέρει δ' οὐδὲν οὔτ' εἰ μεριστὴ ἡ ψυχὴ οὔτ' εἰ ἀμερής,

ἔχει μέντοι δυνάμεις διαφόρους καὶ τὰς εἰρημένας, ὥσπερ

ἐν τῷ καμπύλῳ τὸ κοῖλον καὶ τὸ κυρτὸν ἀδιαχώριστον,

35 καὶ τὸ εὐθὺ καὶ τὸ λευκόν· καίτοι τὸ εὐθὺ οὐ λευκόν,

ἀλλὰ κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς καὶ οὐκ οὐσία τοῦ αὐτοῦ. —ἀφῄρηται

δὲ καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο ἐστὶ μέρος ψυχῆς, οἷον τὸ φυτικόν. ἀνθρωπίνης

γὰρ ψυχῆς τὰ εἰρημένα μόρια ἴδια· διὸ οὐδ' αἱ

ἀρεταὶ αἱ τοῦ θρεπτικοῦ καὶ αὐξητικοῦ ἀνθρώπου· δεῖ γὰρ, εἰ

40 ᾗ ἄνθρωπος, λογισμὸν ἐνεῖναι [καὶ] ἀρχὴν καὶ πρᾶξιν, ἄρχει

1the smith produces a bridle, the good horseman uses it. We find confirmation also in the common opinion that we cannot ascribe happiness to an existence of a single day, or to a child, or to each of the ages of life; and therefore Solon's advice holds good, never to congratulate 5a man when living, but only when his life is ended. For nothing incomplete is happy, not being whole. Further, praise is given to virtue because of its actions, but to actions something higher than praise, the encomium. And we crown the actual conquerors, not those who have the power to conquer but do not actually conquer. Further, our judging 10the character of a man by his acts is a confirmation. Further, why is happiness not praised? Surely because other things are praised owing to this, either by their having reference to it or by their being parts of it. Therefore felicitation, praise, and encomium differ; for encomium is discourse relative to the particular act, praise declares 15the general nature of the man, but felicitation is for the end. This clears up the difficulty sometimes raised—why for half their lives the good are no better than the bad, for all are alike when asleep; the cause is that sleep is an inactivity, not an activity of the soul. Therefore, even if there is some other part of the soul, e.g. the vegetative, 20its excellence is not a part of entire virtue, any more than the excellence of the body is; for in sleep the vegetative part is more active, while the perceptive and the appetitive are incomplete in sleep. But as far as they do to some extent partake of movement, even the visions of the good are better than those of the bad, except so far as 25they are caused by disease or bodily defect. After this we must consider the soul. For virtue belongs to the soul and essentially so. But since we are looking for human virtue, let it be assumed that the parts of the soul partaking of reason are two, but that they partake not in the same way, but the one by its natural tendency to command, the 30other by its natural tendency to obey and listen; if there is a part without reason in some other sense, let it be disregarded. It makes no difference whether the soul is divisible or indivisible, so long as it has different faculties, namely those mentioned above, just as in the curved we have unseparated the concave and the convex, or, again, 35the straight and the white, yet the straight is not white except incidentally and is not the same in essence. We also neglect any other part of the soul that there may be, e.g. the vegetative, for the above-mentioned parts are peculiar to the human soul; therefore the virtues of the nutritive part, that concerned with growth, are not those of man.

1220a

1 δ' ὁ λογισμὸς οὐ λογισμοῦ ἀλλ' ὀρέξεως καὶ παθημάτων,

ἀνάγκη ἄρα ταῦτ' ἔχειν τὰ μέρη. καὶ ὥσπερ ἡ

εὐεξία σύγκειται ἐκ τῶν κατὰ μόριον ἀρετῶν, οὕτω καὶ ἡ

τῆς ψυχῆς ἀρετὴ ᾗ τέλος.

5 ἀρετῆς δ' εἴδη δύο, ἡ μὲν ἠθικὴ ἡ δὲ διανοητική. ἐπαινοῦμεν γὰρ

οὐ μόνον τοὺς δικαίους ἀλλὰ καὶ τοὺς συνετοὺς καὶ τοὺς σοφούς·

ἐπαινετὸν γὰρ ὑπέκειτο ἡ ἀρετὴ ἢ τὸ ἔργον, ταῦτα δ' οὐκ ἐνεργεῖ,

ἀλλ' εἰσὶν αὐτῶν ἐνέργειαι. ἐπεὶ δ' αἱ διανοητικαὶ μετὰ λόγου,

αἱ μὲν τοιαῦται τοῦ λόγον ἔχοντος, ὃ ἐπιτακτικόν ἐστι τῆς

10 ψυχῆς ᾗ λόγον ἔχει, αἱ δ' ἠθικαὶ τοῦ ἀλόγου μέν, ἀκολουθητικοῦ

δὲ κατὰ φύσιν τῷ λόγον ἔχοντι· οὐ γὰρ λέγομεν ποῖός

τις τὸ ἦθος, ὅτι σοφὸς ἢ δεινός, ἀλλ' ὅτι πρᾶος ἢ θρασύς.

μετὰ ταῦτα σκεπτέον πρῶτον περὶ ἀρετῆς ἠθικῆς, τί ἐστι,

καὶ ποῖα μόρια αὐτῆς (εἰς τοῦτο γὰρ ἀνῆκται), καὶ γίνεται

15 διὰ τίνων. δεῖ δὴ ζητεῖν ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις ἔχοντές

τι ζητοῦσι πάντες, ὥστε ἀεὶ διὰ τῶν ἀληθῶς μὲν λεγομένων

οὐ σαφῶς δὲ πειρᾶσθαι λαβεῖν καὶ τὸ ἀληθῶς

καὶ σαφῶς. νῦν γὰρ ὁμοίως ἔχομεν ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ ** καὶ

ὑγίειαν, ὅτι ἡ ἀρίστη διάθεσις τοῦ σώματος, καὶ Κορίσκος ὁ

20 τῶν ἐν τῇ ἀγορᾷ μελάντατος· τί μὲν γὰρ ἑκάτερον τούτων

οὐκ ἴσμεν, πρὸς μέντοι τὸ εἰδέναι τί ἑκάτερον αὐτῆς πρὸ

ἔργου τὸ οὕτως ἔχειν. —ὑποκείσθω δὴ πρῶτον ἡ βελτίστη διάθεσις

ὑπὸ τῶν βελτίστων γίγνεσθαι, καὶ πράττεσθαι ἄριστα

περὶ ἕκαστον ἀπὸ τῆς ἑκάστου ἀρετῆς, οἷον πόνοι τε ἄριστοι

25 καὶ τροφὴ ἀφ' ὧν γίνεται εὐεξία, καὶ ἀπὸ τῆς εὐεξίας

πονοῦσιν ἄριστα· ἔτι πᾶσαν διάθεσιν ὑπὸ τῶν αὐτῶν γίγνεσθαι

καὶ φθείρεσθαι πὼς προσφερομένων, ὥσπερ ὑγίεια ὑπὸ

τροφῆς καὶ πόνων καὶ ὥρας. ταῦτα δὲ δῆλα ἐκ τῆς ἐπαγωγῆς.

καὶ ἡ ἀρετὴ ἄρα ἡ τοιαύτη διάθεσις ἐστίν, ἣ γίνεταί

30 τε ὑπὸ τῶν ἀρίστων περὶ ψυχὴν κινήσεων καὶ ἀφ' ἧς

πράττεται τὰ ἄριστα τῆς ψυχῆς ἔργα καὶ πάθη, καὶ ὑπὸ

τῶν αὐτῶν πὼς μὲν γίνεται, πὼς δὲ φθείρεται, καὶ πρὸς ταὐτὰ

ἡ χρῆσις αὐτῆς ὑφ' ὧν καὶ αὔξεται καὶ φθείρεται, πρὸς

ἃ βέλτιστα διατίθησιν. σημεῖον δ' ὅτι περὶ ἡδέα καὶ λυπηρὰ

35 καὶ ἡ ἀρετὴ καὶ ἡ κακία· αἱ γὰρ κολάσεις ἰατρεῖαι

οὖσαι καὶ γινόμεναι διὰ τῶν ἐναντίων, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν

ἄλλων, διὰ τούτων εἰσίν.

1For, if we speak of him qua man, he must have the power of reasoning, a governing principle, moral action; but reason governs not reason, but desire and the passions; he must then have these parts. And just as general good condition of the body is compounded of the partial excellences, so also 5the excellence of the soul, qua end. But of virtue or excellence there are two species, the moral and the intellectual. For we praise not only the just but also the intelligent and the wise. For we assumed that what is praiseworthy is either the virtue or its act, and these are not activities, but have activities. But since the intellectual virtues involve reason, they 10belong to that rational part of the soul which governs the soul by its possession of reason, while the moral belong to the part which is irrational but by its nature obedient to the part possessing reason; for we do not describe the character of a man by saying that he is wise or clever, but by saying that he is gentle or bold. After this we must first consider moral 15virtue, its nature, its parts—for our inquiry has been forced back on this-—and how it is produced. We must make our search as all do in other things—they search having something to start with; so here, by means of true but indistinct judgements, we must try to attain to what is true and distinct. For we are now in the condition of one who describes health as the 20best condition of the body, or Coriscus as the darkest man in the market-place; for what either of these is we do not know, but yet for the attainment of knowledge of either it is worth while to be in this condition. First, then, let it be laid down that the best state is produced by the best means, and that with regard to everything the best is done from the excellence 25of that thing (e.g. the exercises and food are best which produce a good condition of body, and from such a condition men best perform exercises). Further, that every condition is produced and destroyed by some sort of application of the same things, e.g. health from food, exercises, and weather. This is clear from induction. Virtue too, then, is that sort of condition 30which is produced by the best movements in the soul, and from which are produced the soul's best works and feelings; and by the same things, if they happen in one way, it is produced, but if they happen in another, it is destroyed. The employment of virtue is relative to the same things by which it is increased and destroyed, and it puts us in the best attitude 35towards them. A proof that both virtue and vice are concerned with the pleasant and the painful is that punishment being cure and operating through opposites, as the cure does in everything else, acts through these.

Book 2,Chapter 2 (1220a38–1220b20)

ὅτι μὲν τοίνυν ἡ ἠθικὴ ἀρετὴ περὶ ἡδέα καὶ λυπηρά

ἐστι, δῆλον· ἐπεὶ δ' ἐστὶ τὸ ἦθος, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸ ὄνομα σημαίνει

That moral virtue, then, is concerned with the pleasant and the painful is clear.

1220b

1 ὅτι ἀπὸ ἔθους ἔχει τὴν ἐπίδοσιν, ἐθίζεται δὲ τὸ ὑπ'

ἀγωγῆς μὴ ἐμφύτου τῷ πολλάκις κινεῖσθαι πώς, οὕτως ἤδη

τὸ ἐνεργητικόν, ὃ ἐν τοῖς ἀψύχοις οὐχ ὁρῶμεν (οὐδὲ γὰρ

ἂν μυριάκις ῥίψῃς ἄνω τὸν λίθον, οὐδέποτε ποιήσει τοῦτο μὴ

5 βίᾳ), διὸ ἔστω <τὸ> ἦθος τοῦτο ψυχῆς κατὰ ἐπιτακτικὸν λόγον

<τοῦ ἀλόγου μέν,> δυναμένου δ' ἀκολουθεῖν τῷ λόγῳ ποιότης.

λεκτέον δὴ κατὰ τί τῆς ψυχῆς ποιότης τὰ ἤθη. ἔστι δὲ κατά τε

τὰς δυνάμεις τῶν παθημάτων, καθ' ἃς ὡς παθητικοὶ λέγονται,

καὶ κατὰ τὰς ἕξεις, καθ' ἃς πρὸς τὰ πάθη ταῦτα λέγονται τῷ

10 πάσχειν πως ἢ ἀπαθεῖς εἶναι. μετὰ ταῦτα ἡ διαίρεσις ἐν

τοῖς ἀπηλλαγμένοις τῶν παθημάτων καὶ τῶν δυνάμεων καὶ

τῶν ἕξεων. λέγω δὲ πάθη μὲν τὰ τοιαῦτα, θυμὸν φόβον

αἰδῶ ἐπιθυμίαν, ὅλως οἷς ἕπεται ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ ἡ αἰσθητικὴ

ἡδονὴ ἢ λύπη καθ' αὑτά. καὶ κατὰ μὲν ταῦτα οὐκ

15 ἔστι ποιότης, ἀλλὰ πάσχει, κατὰ δὲ τὰς δυνάμεις ποιότης.

λέγω δὲ [τὰς] δυνάμεις καθ' ἃς λέγονται κατὰ τὰ πάθη οἱ

ἐνεργοῦντες, οἷον ὀργίλος ἀνάλγητος ἐρωτικὸς αἰσχυντηλὸς

ἀναίσχυντος. ἕξεις δέ εἰσιν ὅσαι αἴτιαί εἰσι τοῦ ταῦτα ἢ

κατὰ λόγον ὑπάρχειν ἢ ἐναντίως, οἷον ἀνδρεία σωφροσύνη

20 δειλία ἀκολασία.

1But since the character, being as its name indicates something that grows by habit— and that which is under guidance other than innate is trained to a habit by frequent movement of a particular kind—is the active principle present after this process, but in 5things inanimate we do not see this (for even if you throw a stone upwards ten thousand times, it will never go upward except by compulsion),—consider, then, character to be this, viz. a quality in accordance with governing reason belonging to the irrational part of the soul which is yet able to obey the reason. Now we have to 10state in respect of what part of the soul we have character of this or that kind. It will be in respect of the faculties of passion, in virtue of which men are spoken of as subject to passion, and in respect of the habits, in virtue of which men are described, in reference to those passions, either as feeling them in some 15way or as not feeling them. After this comes the division made in previous discussions into the passions, faculties, and habits. By passions I mean such as anger, fear, shame, sensual desire—in general, all that is usually followed of itself by sensuous pleasure or pain. Quality does not depend on these—they are merely 20experienced—but on the faculties. By faculty I mean that in virtue of which men who act from their passions are called after them, e.g. are called irascible, insensible, amorous, bashful, shameless. And habits are the causes through which these faculties belong to us either in a reasonable way or the opposite, e.g. bravery, 25temperance, cowardice, intemperance.

Book 2,Chapter 3 (1220b21–1221b26)

διωρισμένων δὲ τούτων, ληπτέον ὅτι ἐν ἅπαντι συνεχεῖ

καὶ διαιρετῷ ἐστιν ὑπεροχὴ καὶ ἔλλειψις καὶ μέσον,

καὶ ταῦτα ἢ πρὸς ἄλληλα ἢ πρὸς ἡμᾶς, οἷον ἐν γυμναστικῇ,

ἐν ἰατρικῇ, ἐν οἰκοδομικῇ, ἐν κυβερνητικῇ, καὶ ἐν

25 ὁποιᾳοῦν πράξει, καὶ ἐπιστημονικῇ καὶ ἀνεπιστημονικῇ, καὶ

τεχνικῇ καὶ ἀτέχνῳ. ἡ μὲν γὰρ κίνησις συνεχές, ἡ δὲ

πρᾶξις κίνησις. ἐν πᾶσι δὲ τὸ μέσον τὸ πρὸς ἡμᾶς βέλτιστον·

τοῦτο γάρ ἐστιν ὡς ἡ ἐπιστήμη κελεύει καὶ ὁ λόγος.

πανταχοῦ δὲ τοῦτο καὶ ποιεῖ τὴν βελτίστην ἕξιν. καὶ τοῦτο

30 δῆλον διὰ τῆς ἐπαγωγῆς καὶ τοῦ λόγου. τὰ γὰρ ἐναντία

φθείρει ἄλληλα· τὰ δ' ἄκρα καὶ ἀλλήλοις καὶ τῷ μέσῳ

ἐναντία. τὸ γὰρ μέσον ἑκάτερον πρὸς ἑκάτερον ἐστίν, οἷον

τὸ ἴσον τοῦ μὲν ἐλάττονος μεῖζον, τοῦ μείζονος δὲ ἔλαττον.

ὥστ' ἀνάγκη τὴν ἠθικὴν ἀρετὴν περὶ μέσ' ἄττα εἶναι καὶ

35 μεσότητα τινά. ληπτέον ἄρα ἡ ποία μεσότης ἀρετή, καὶ

περὶ ποῖα μέσα. εἰλήφθω δὴ παραδείγματος χάριν, καὶ

θεωρείσθω ἕκαστον ἐκ τῆς ὑπογραφῆς.

ὀργιλότης ἀναλγησία πραότης.

θρασύτης δειλία ἀνδρεία.

After these distinctions we must notice that in everything continuous and divisible there is excess, deficiency, and the mean, and these in relation to one another or in relation to us, e.g. in the gymnastic or medical arts, in those of building and navigation, and in any sort of action, alike 30scientific and non-scientific, skilled and unskilled. For motion is continuous, and action is motion. In all the mean in relation to us is the best; for this is as knowledge and reason direct us. And this everywhere also makes the best habit. This is clear both by induction and by reasoning. For opposites destroy one another, 35and extremes are opposite both to one another and to the mean; for the mean is to either extreme the other extreme, e.g. the equal is greater to the less, but less to the greater. Therefore moral virtue must have to do with the mean and be a sort of mediety.

1221a

1 ἀναισχυντία κατάπληξις αἰδώς.

ἀκολασία ἀναισθησία σωφροσύνη.

φθόνος ἀνώνυμον νέμεσις.

κέρδος ζημία δίκαιον.

5 ἀσωτία ἀνελευθερία ἐλευθεριότης.

ἀλαζονεία εἰρωνεία ἀλήθεια.

κολακεία ἀπέχθεια φιλία.

ἀρέσκεια αὐθάδεια σεμνότης.

[τρυφερότης κακοπάθεια καρτερία.]

10 χαυνότης μικροψυχία μεγαλοψυχία.

δαπανηρία μικροπρέπεια μεγαλοπρέπεια.

[πανουργία εὐήθεια φρόνησις].

τὰ μὲν πάθη ταῦτα καὶ τοιαῦτα συμβαίνει ταῖς ψυχαῖς,

πάντα δὲ λέγεται τὰ μὲν τῷ ὑπερβάλλειν τὰ δὲ τῷ ἐλλείπειν.

15 ὀργίλος μὲν γάρ ἐστιν ὁ μᾶλλον ἢ δεῖ ὀργιζόμενος

καὶ θᾶττον καὶ πλείοσιν ἢ οἷς δεῖ, ἀνάλγητος δὲ ὁ

ἐλλείπων καὶ οἷς καὶ ὅτε καὶ ὥς· καὶ θρασὺς μὲν ὁ μήτε

ἃ χρὴ φοβούμενος μήθ' ὅτε μήθ' ὥς, δειλὸς δὲ ὁ καὶ ἃ

μὴ δεῖ καὶ ὅτ' οὐ δεῖ καὶ ὡς οὐ δεῖ· ** ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ [ὁ] ἀκόλαστος

20 ** καὶ ὁ ἐπιθυμητικὸς καὶ ὁ ὑπερβάλλων πᾶσιν ὅσοις

ἐνδέχεται, ἀναίσθητος δὲ ὁ ἐλλείπων καὶ μηδ' ὅσον βέλτιον

καὶ κατὰ τὴν φύσιν ἐπιθυμῶν, ἀλλ' ἀπαθὴς ὥσπερ

λίθος· κερδαλέος δὲ ὁ πανταχόθεν πλεονεκτικός, ζημιώδης

δὲ ὁ μηδαμόθεν, ἀλλ' ὀλιγαχόθεν· ἀλαζὼν δὲ ὁ πλείω

25 τῶν ὑπαρχόντων προσποιούμενος, εἴρων δὲ ὁ ἐλάττω· καὶ

κόλαξ μὲν ὁ πλείω συνεπαινῶν ἢ καλῶς ἔχει, ἀπεχθητικὸς

δὲ ὁ ἐλάττω· καὶ τὸ μὲν λίαν πρὸς ἡδονὴν ἀρέσκεια,

τὸ δ' ὀλίγα καὶ μόγις εὐθάδεια· [ἔτι δ' ὁ μὲν μηδεμίαν

ὑπομένων λύπην, μηδ' εἰ βέλτιον, τρυφερός, ὁ δὲ πᾶσαν

30 ὁμοίως ὡς μὲν ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν ἀνώνυμος, μεταφορᾷ δὲ λέγεται

σκληρὸς καὶ ταλαίπωρος καὶ κακοπαθητικός·] χαῦνος

δ' ὁ μειζόνων ἀξιῶν αὑτόν, μικρόψυχος δ' ὁ ἐλαττόνων·

ἔτι δ' ἄσωτος ὁ πρὸς ἅπασαν δαπάνην ὑπερβάλλων,

ἀνελεύθερος δὲ ὁ πρὸς ἅπασαν ἐλλείπων· ὁμοίως

35 δὲ καὶ ὁ μικροπρεπὴς καὶ ὁ σαλάκων, ὁ μὲν γὰρ ὑπερβάλλει

τὸ πρέπον, ὁ δ' ἐλλείπει τοῦ πρέποντος· [καὶ ὁ μὲν

πανοῦργος πάντως καὶ πάντοθεν πλεονεκτικός, ὁ δ' εὐήθης

οὐδ' ὅθεν δεῖ·] φθονερὸς δὲ τῷ λυπεῖσθαι ἐπὶ πλείοσιν εὐπραγίαις

ἢ δεῖ (καὶ γὰρ οἱ ἄξιοι εὖ πράττειν λυποῦσι τοὺς

40 φθονεροὺς εὖ πράττοντες), ὁ δ' ἐναντίος ἀνωνυμώτερος, ἔστι

1We must then notice what sort of mediety virtue is and about what sort of means; let each be taken from the list by way of illustration, and studied: irascibility lack of feeling gentleness audacity cowardice bravery shamelessness shyness modesty intemperance insensibility temperance envy (unnamed) 5righteous indignation gain loss the just lavishness meanness liberality boastfulness self-depreciation sincerity habit of flattery habit of dislike friendliness servility stubbornness dignity luxuriousness submission to evils endurance vanity meanness of spirit greatness of spirit extravagance pettiness magnificence cunning simplicity prudence These and similar are the passions 10that occur in the soul; they receive their names, some from being excesses, some from being defects. For the irascible is one who is angry more than he ought to be, and more quickly, and with more people than he ought; the unfeeling is deficient in regard to persons, occasions, and manner. The man who fears neither what, nor when, nor as he ought is confident; the man who 15fears what he ought not, and on the wrong occasions, and in the wrong manner is cowardly. So 'intemperate' is the name for one prone to sensual desire and exceeding in all possible ways, while he who is deficient and does not feel desire even so far as is good for him and in accordance with nature, but is as much without feeling as a stone, is insensible. The man who makes 20profit from any source is greedy of gain; the man who makes it from none, or perhaps few, is a 'waster'. The braggart is one who pretends to more than he possesses, the self-depreciator is one who pretends to less. The man who is more ready than is proper to join in praise is a flatterer; the man who is less ready is prone to dislike. To act in everything so as to give another 25pleasure is servility, but to give pleasure seldom and reluctantly is stubbornness. Further, one who can endure no pain, even if it is good for him, is luxurious; one who can endure all pain alike has no name literally applicable to him, but by metaphor is called hard, patient, or ready of submission. The vain man is he who thinks himself worthy of more than he is, while 30the poor-spirited thinks himself worthy of less. Further, the lavish is he who exceeds, the mean is he who is deficient, in every sort of expenditure. Similar are the stingy and the purse-proud; the latter exceeds what is fitting, the former falls short of it. The rogue aims at gain in any way and from any source; the simple not even from the right source. A man is envious 35in feeling pain at the sight of prosperity more often than he ought, for even those who deserve prosperity cause when prosperous pain to the envious; the opposite character has not so definite a name: he is one who shows excess in not grieving even at the prosperity of the undeserving, but accepts all, as gluttons accept all food, while his opposite is impatient through envy.

1221b

1 δ' ὁ ὑπερβάλλων [ἐπὶ] τῷ μὴ λυπεῖσθαι μηδ' ἐπὶ τοῖς

ἀναξίοις εὖ πράττουσιν, ἀλλ' εὐχερὴς ὥσπερ οἱ γαστρίμαργοι

πρὸς τροφήν, ὃ δὲ δυσχερὴς κατὰ τὸν φθόνον ἐστίν. —

τὸ δὲ πρὸς ἕκαστον μὴ κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς οὕτως ἔχειν περίεργον

5 διορίζειν· οὐδεμία γὰρ ἐπιστήμη, οὔτε θεωρητικὴ οὔτε ποιητική,

οὔτε λέγει οὔτε πράττει τοῦτο προσδιορίζουσα, ἀλλὰ τοῦτ'

ἐστι πρὸς τὰς συκοφαντίας τῶν τεχνῶν τὰς λογικάς. ἁπλῶς

μὲν οὖν διωρίσθω τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον, ἀκριβέστερον δ', ὅταν

περὶ τῶν ἕξεων λέγωμεν τῶν ἀντικειμένων.

10 αὐτῶν δὲ τούτων τῶν παθημάτων εἴδη κατονομάζεται τῷ

διαφέρειν κατὰ τὴν ὑπερβολὴν ἢ χρόνου ἢ τοῦ μᾶλλον ἢ πρός τι

τῶν ποιούντων τὰ πάθη. λέγω δ' οἷον ὀξύθυμος μὲν τῷ θᾶττον

πάσχειν ἢ δεῖ, χαλεπὸς δὲ καὶ θυμώδης τῷ μᾶλλον, πικρὸς

δὲ τῷ φυλακτικὸς εἶναι τῆς ὀργῆς, πλήκτης δὲ καὶ λοιδορητικὸς

15 ταῖς κολάσεσι ταῖς ἀπὸ τῆς ὀργῆς **. ὀψοφάγοι δὲ

καὶ γαστρίμαργοι καὶ οἰνόφλυγες τῷ πρὸς ὁποτέρας τροφῆς

ἀπόλαυσιν ἔχειν τὴν δύναμιν παθητικὴν παρὰ τὸν λόγον.

οὐ δεῖ δὲ ἀγνοεῖν ὅτι ἔνια τῶν λεγομένων οὐκ ἔστιν ἐν τῷ

πῶς λαμβάνειν, ἂν πῶς λαμβάνηται τῷ μᾶλλον πάσχειν.

20 οἷον μοιχὸς οὐ τῷ μᾶλλον ἢ δεῖ πρὸς τὰς γαμετὰς πλησιάζειν

(οὐ γὰρ ἐστίν), ἀλλὰ μοχθηρία τις αὐτὴ δὴ ἐστίν.

συνειλημμένον γὰρ τό τε πάθος λέγεται καὶ τὸ τοιόνδε

εἶναι. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἡ ὕβρις. διὸ καὶ ἀμφισβητοῦσι, συγγενέσθαι

μὲν φάσκοντες, ἀλλ' οὐ μοιχεῦσαι· ἀγνοοῦντες γὰρ

25 ἢ ἀναγκαζόμενοι καὶ πατάξαι μέν, ἀλλ' οὐχ' ὑβρίσαι·

ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τὰ ἄλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα.

1It is superfluous to add to the definition that the particular relations to each thing should not be accidental; for no art, theoretical or productive, uses such additions to its definitions in speech or action; the addition is merely directed against logical quibbles 5against the arts. Take the above, then, as simple definitions, which will be made more accurate when we speak of the opposite habits. But of these states themselves there are species with names differing according as the excess is in time, in degree, or in the object provoking the state: e.g. one is quick-tempered through feeling 10anger quicker than one ought, irascible and passionate through feeling it more, acrid through one's tendency to retain one's anger, violent and abusive through the punishments one inflicts from anger. Epicures, gluttons, drunkards are so named from having a tendency contrary to reason to indulgence in one or the other kind of nutriment. 15Nor must we forget that some of the faults mentioned cannot be taken to depend on the manner of action, if manner means excess of passion: e.g. the adulterer is not so called from his excessive intercourse with married women; 'excess' is inapplicable here, but the act is simply in itself wicked; the passion and its character 20are expressed in the same word. Similarly with outrage. Hence men dispute the liability of their actions to be called by these names; they say that they had intercourse but did not commit adultery (for they acted ignorantly or by compulsion), or that they gave a blow but committed no outrage; and so they defend themselves against all 25other similar charges.

Book 2,Chapter 4 (1221b27–1222a5)

εἰλημμένων δὲ τούτων, μετὰ ταῦτα λεκτέον ὅτι ἐπειδὴ

δύο μέρη τῆς ψυχῆς, καὶ αἱ ἀρεταὶ κατὰ ταῦτα διῄρηνται,

καὶ αἱ μὲν τοῦ λόγον ἔχοντος διανοητικαί, ὧν ἔργον

30 ἀλήθεια, ἢ περὶ τοῦ πῶς ἔχει ἢ περὶ γενέσεως, αἱ δὲ τοῦ

ἀλόγου, ἔχοντος δ' ὄρεξιν (οὐ γὰρ ὁτιοῦν μέρος ἔχει τῆς

ψυχῆς ὄρεξιν, εἰ μεριστὴ ἐστίν), ἀνάγκη δὴ φαῦλον τὸ ἦθος

καὶ σπουδαῖον εἶναι τῷ διώκειν καὶ φεύγειν ἡδονάς τινας

καὶ λύπας. δῆλον δὲ τοῦτο ἐκ τῶν διαιρέσεων τῶν περὶ τὰ

35 πάθη καὶ τὰς δυνάμεις καὶ τὰς ἕξεις. αἱ μὲν γὰρ δυνάμεις

καὶ αἱ ἕξεις τῶν παθημάτων, τὰ δὲ πάθη λύπῃ καὶ

ἡδονῇ διώρισται· ὥστε διά τε ταῦτα καὶ διὰ τὰς ἔμπροσθεν

θέσεις συμβαίνει πᾶσαν ἠθικὴν ἀρετὴν περὶ ἡδονὰς εἶναι

καὶ λύπας. πᾶσα γὰρ ψυχὴ ὑφ' οἵων πέφυκε γίνεσθαι

40 χείρων καὶ βελτίων, πρὸς ταῦτα καὶ περὶ ταῦτά ἐστιν ἡ

Having got so far, we must next say that, since there are two parts of the soul, the virtues are divided correspondingly, those of the rational part being the intellectual, whose function is truth, whether about a thing's nature or genesis, while the others belong to the part irrational but appetitive—for not 30any and every part of the soul, supposing it to be divisible, is appetitive. Necessarily, then, the character must be bad or good by its pursuit or avoidance of certain pleasures and pains. This is clear from our classification of the passions, powers, and states; for the powers and states are powers and states of the passions, and 35the passions are distinguished by pain and pleasure. So that for these reasons and also because of our previous propositions it follows that all moral virtue has to do with pleasures and pains. For by whatever things a soul tends to become better or worse, it is with regard to and in relation to these things that it finds pleasure.

1222a

1 ἡδονή. δι' ἡδονὰς δὲ καὶ λύπας φαύλους εἶναι φαμέν, τῷ

διώκειν καὶ φεύγειν ἢ ὡς μὴ δεῖ ἢ ἃς μὴ δεῖ. διὸ καὶ

διορίζονται πάντες προχείρως ἀπάθειαν καὶ ἠρεμίαν περὶ

ἡδονὰς καὶ λύπας εἶναι τὰς ἀρετάς, τὰς δὲ κακίας ἐκ

5 τῶν ἐναντίων.

1But we say men are bad through pleasures and pains, either by the pursuit and avoidance of improper pleasures or pains or by their pursuit in an improper way. Therefore all readily define the virtues as insensibility or immobility as regards pleasures and pains, and vices as 5constituted by the opposites of these.

Book 2,Chapter 5 (1222a6–1222b14)

ἐπεὶ δ' ὑπόκειται ἀρετὴ εἶναι ἡ τοιαύτη ἕξις ἀφ' ἧς

πρακτικοὶ τῶν βελτίστων καὶ καθ' ἣν ἄριστα διάκεινται

περὶ τὸ βέλτιστον, βέλτιστον δὲ καὶ ἄριστον τὸ κατὰ τὸν

ὀρθὸν λόγον, τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶ τὸ μέσον ὑπερβολῆς καὶ ἐλλείψεως

10 τῆς πρὸς ἡμᾶς· ἀναγκαῖον ἂν εἴη τὴν ἠθικὴν ἀρετὴν

καθ' αὑτὸν ἕκαστον μεσότητα εἶναι καὶ περὶ μέσ' ἄττα ἐν

ἡδοναῖς καὶ λύπαις καὶ ἡδέσι καὶ λυπηροῖς. ἔσται δ' ἡ

μεσότης ὁτὲ μὲν ἐν ἡδοναῖς (καὶ γὰρ ὑπερβολὴ καὶ ἔλλειψις),

ὁτὲ δ' ἐν λύπαις, ὁτὲ δ' ἐν ἀμφοτέραις. ὁ γὰρ

15 ὑπερβάλλων τῷ χαίρειν τῷ ἡδεῖ ὑπερβάλλει καὶ ὁ τῷ

λυπεῖσθαι τῷ ἐναντίῳ, καὶ ταῦτα ἢ ἁπλῶς ἢ πρός τινα

ὅρον, οἷον ὅταν μὴ ὡς οἱ πολλοί· ὁ δ' ἀγαθὸς ὡς δεῖ. —ἐπεὶ

δ' ἐστί τις ἕξις ἀφ' ἧς τοιοῦτος ἔσται ὁ ἔχων αὐτὴν ὥστε τοῦ

αὐτοῦ πράγματος ὃ μὲν ἀποδέχεσθαι τὴν ὑπερβολὴν ὃ δὲ

20 τὴν ἔλλειψιν, ἀνάγκη, ὡς ταῦτ' ἀλλήλοις ἐναντία καὶ τῷ

μέσῳ, οὕτω καὶ τὰς ἕξεις ἀλλήλαις ἐναντίας εἶναι καὶ τῇ

ἀρετῇ. —συμβαίνει μέντοι τὰς ἀντιθέσεις ἔνθα μὲν φανερωτέρας

εἶναι πάσας, ἔνθα δὲ τὰς ἐπὶ τὴν ὑπερβολήν, ἐνιαχοῦ

δὲ τὰς ἐπὶ τὴν ἔλλειψιν. αἴτιον δὲ τῆς ἐναντιώσεως, ὅτι

25 οὐκ ἀεὶ ἐπὶ ταὐτὰ τῆς ἀνισότητος ἢ ὁμοιότητος πρὸς τὸ μέσον,

ἀλλ' ὁτὲ μὲν θᾶττον ἂν μεταβαίη ἀπὸ τῆς ὑπερβολῆς

ἐπὶ τὴν μέσην ἕξιν, ὁτὲ δ' ἀπὸ τῆς ἐλλείψεως, ἧς <ὃς>

πλέον ἀπέχει, οὗτος δοκεῖ ἐναντιώτερος εἶναι, οἷον καὶ περὶ

τὸ σῶμα ἐν μὲν τοῖς πόνοις ὑγιεινότερον ἡ ὑπερβολὴ τῆς

30 ἐλλείψεως καὶ ἐγγύτερον τοῦ μέσου, ἐν δὲ τῇ τροφῇ ἡ ἔλλειψις

ὑπερβολῆς. ὥστε καὶ αἱ προαιρετικαὶ ἕξεις αἱ φιλογυμναστικαὶ

φιλοϋγιεῖς μᾶλλον ἔσονται καθ' ἑκατέραν τὴν

αἵρεσιν, ἔνθα μὲν αἱ πολυπονώτεραι, ἔνθα δ' αἱ ὑποστατικώτεραι,

καὶ ἐναντίος τῷ μετρίῳ καὶ τῷ ὡς ὁ λόγος ἔνθα

35 μὲν ὁ ἄπονος καὶ οὐκ ἄμφω, ἔνθα δὲ [καὶ] ὁ ἀπολαυστικὸς

καὶ οὐχ ὁ πεινητικός. συμβαίνει δὲ τοῦτο, διότι ἡ φύσις

εὐθὺς οὐ πρὸς ἅπαντα ὁμοίως ἀφέστηκε τοῦ μέσου, ἀλλ'

ἧττον μὲν φιλόπονοι ἐσμέν, μᾶλλον δ' ἀπολαυστικοί. ὁμοίως

δὲ ταῦτ' ἔχει καὶ περὶ ψυχῆς. ἐναντίαν δὲ τίθεμεν τὴν

40 ἕξιν ἐφ' ἥν τε ἁμαρτάνομεν μᾶλλον καὶ ἐφ' ἣν οἱ πολλοί

(ἡ δ' ἑτέρα ὥσπερ οὐκ οὖσα λανθάνει· διὰ γὰρ τὸ ὀλίγον

ἀναίσθητος ἐστίν), οἷον ὀργὴν πραότητι καὶ τὸν ὀργίλον

But since we have assumed that virtue is that sort of habit from which men have a tendency to do the best actions, and through which they are in the best disposition towards what is best; and best is what is in accordance with right reason, and this is the mean between excess and defect relative to us; it would 10follow that moral virtue is a mean relative to each individual himself, and is concerned with certain means in pleasures and pains, in the pleasant and the painful. The mean will sometimes be in pleasures (for there too is excess and defect), sometimes in pains, sometimes in both. For he who is excessive in his feeling of delight exceeds in the pleasant, 15but he who exceeds in his feeling of pain, in the painful—and this either absolutely or with reference to some standard, e.g. when he differs from the majority of men; but the good man feels as he ought. But since there is a habit in consequence of which its possessor will in some cases admit the excess, in others the defect of the same thing, 20it follows that as these acts are opposed to one another and to the mean, so the habits will also be opposed to one another and to virtue. It happens, however, that sometimes all these oppositions will be clearer, sometimes those on the side of excess, sometimes those on the side of defect. And the reason of the difference is that the unlikeness or 25likeness to the mean is not always of the same kind, but in one case one might change quicker from the excess to the middle habit, some times from the defect, and the person further distant seems more opposed; e.g. in regard to the body excess in exercise is healthier than defect, and nearer to the mean, but in food defect is healthier than excess. 30And so of those states of will which tend to training now some, now others, will show a greater tendency to health in case of the two acts of choice—now those good at work, now those good at abstemiousness; and he who is opposed to the moderate and the reasonable will be the man who avoids exercise, not both; and in the case of food the self-indulgent 35man, not the man who starves himself. And the reason is that from the start our nature does not diverge in the same way from the mean as regards all things; we are less inclined to exercise, and more inclined to indulgence. So it is too with regard to the soul. We regard, then, as the habit opposed to the mean, that towards which both our faults 40and men in general are more inclined-the other extreme, as though not existent, escapes our notice, being unperceived because of its rarity.

1222b

1 τῷ πράῳ. καίτοι ἐστὶν ὑπερβολὴ καὶ ἐπὶ τὸ ἵλεων εἶναι

καὶ τὸ καταλλακτικὸν εἶναι καὶ μὴ ὀργίζεσθαι ῥαπιζόμενον.

ἀλλ' ὀλίγοι οἱ τοιοῦτοι, ἐπ' ἐκεῖνο δὲ πάντες ῥέπουσι

μᾶλλον. διὸ καὶ οὐ κολακικὸν ὁ θυμός.

5 ἐπεὶ δ' εἴληπται ἡ διαλογὴ τῶν ἕξεων καθ' ἕκαστα τὰ

πάθη, καὶ αἱ ὑπερβολαὶ καὶ ἐλλείψεις, καὶ τῶν ἐναντίων ἕξεων,

καθ' ἃς ἔχουσι κατὰ τὸν ὀρθὸν λόγον (τίς δ' ὁ ὀρθὸς λόγος, καὶ

πρὸς τίνα δεῖ ὅρον ἀποβλέποντας λέγειν τὸ μέσον, ὕστερον ἐπισκεπτέον),

φανερὸν ὅτι πᾶσαι αἱ ἠθικαὶ ἀρεταὶ καὶ κακίαι περὶ

10 ἡδονῶν καὶ λυπῶν ὑπερβολὰς καὶ ἐλλείψεις εἰσί, καὶ ἡδοναὶ

καὶ λῦπαι ἀπὸ τῶν εἰρημένων ἕξεων καὶ παθημάτων γίνονται.

ἀλλὰ μὴν ἥ γε βελτίστη ἕξις ἡ περὶ ἕκαστα μέση ἐστίν.

δῆλον τοίνυν ὅτι αἱ ἀρεταὶ ἢ πᾶσαι ἢ τούτων τινὲς ἔσονται

τῶν μεσοτήτων.

1Thus we oppose anger to gentleness, and the irascible to the gentle. Yet there is also excess in the direction of gentleness and readiness to be reconciled, and the repression of anger when one is struck. But the men prone to this are few, and all incline more to the opposite extreme; there is none 5of the spirit of reconciliation in anger. And since we have reached a list of the habits in regard to the several passions, with their excesses and defects, and the opposite habits in virtue of which men are as right reason directs them to be—(what right reason is, and with an eye to what standard we are to fix the mean, must be considered later)—it is clear that all the 10moral virtues and vices have to do with excesses and defects of pleasures and pains, and that pleasures and pains arise from the above-mentioned habits and passions. But the best habit is that which is the mean in respect of each class of things. It is clear then that all, or at least some, of the virtues will be connected with means.

Book 2,Chapter 6 (1222b15–1223a20)

15 λάβωμεν οὖν ἄλλην ἀρχὴν τῆς ἐπιούσης σκέψεως. εἰσὶ

δὴ πᾶσαι μὲν αἱ οὐσίαι κατὰ φύσιν τινὲς ἀρχαί, διὸ καὶ

ἑκάστη πολλὰ δύναται τοιαῦτα γεννᾶν, οἷον ἄνθρωπος ἀνθρώπους

καὶ ζῷον ὂν ὅλως ζῷα καὶ φυτὸν φυτά. πρὸς

δὲ τούτοις ὅ γ' ἄνθρωπος καὶ πράξεών τινών ἐστιν ἀρχὴ μόνον

20 τῶν ζῴων· τῶν γὰρ ἄλλων οὐθὲν εἴποιμεν ἂν πράττειν. τῶν δ'

ἀρχῶν ὅσαι τοιαῦται, ὅθεν πρῶτον αἱ κινήσεις, κύριαι λέγονται,

μάλιστα δὲ δικαίως ἀφ' ὧν μὴ ἐνδέχεται ἄλλως,

ἣν ἴσως ὁ θεὸς ἄρχει. ἐν δὲ ταῖς ἀκινήτοις ἀρχαῖς, οἷον ἐν

ταῖς μαθηματικαῖς, οὐκ ἔστι τὸ κύριον, καίτοι λέγεταί γε

25 καθ' ὁμοιότητα· καὶ γὰρ ἐνταῦθα κινουμένης τῆς ἀρχῆς

πάντα μάλιστ' ἂν τὰ δεικνύμενα μεταβάλλοι, αὐτὰ δ'

αὑτὰ οὐ μεταβάλλει ἀναιρουμένου θατέρου ὑπὸ θατέρου, ἂν μὴ

τῷ τὴν ὑπόθεσιν ἀνελεῖν καὶ δι' ἐκείνης δεῖξαι. ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος

ἀρχὴ κινήσεως τινός· ἡ γὰρ πρᾶξις κίνησις. ἐπεὶ δ'

30 ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις ἡ ἀρχὴ αἰτία ἐστὶ τῶν δι' αὐτὴν ὄντων

ἢ γινομένων, δεῖ νοῆσαι καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀποδείξεων. εἰ

γὰρ ἔχοντος τοῦ τριγώνου δύο ὀρθὰς ἀνάγκη τὸ τετράγωνον

ἔχειν τέτταρας ὀρθάς, φανερὸν ὡς αἴτιον τούτου τὸ δύο ὀρθὰς

ἔχειν τὸ τρίγωνον. εἰ δέ γε μεταβάλλει τὸ τρίγωνον, ἀνάγκη

35 καὶ τὸ τετράγωνον μεταβάλλειν, οἷον εἰ τρεῖς, ἕξ, εἰ δὲ τέτταρες,

ὀκτώ. κἂν εἰ μὴ μεταβάλλοι, τοιοῦτον δ' ἐστί, κακεῖνο

τοιοῦτον ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι. δῆλον δ' ὃ ἐπιχειροῦμεν ὅτι ἀναγκαῖον,

ἐκ τῶν ἀναλυτικῶν· νῦν δ' οὔτε μὴ λέγειν οὔτε λέγειν

ἀκριβῶς οἷόν τε, πλὴν τοσοῦτον. εἰ γὰρ μηθὲν ἄλλο αἴτιον

40 τοῦ τὸ τρίγωνον οὕτως ἔχειν, ἀρχή τις ἂν εἴη τοῦτο καὶ αἴτιον

τῶν ὕστερον. ὥστ' εἴπερ ἐστὶν ἔνια τῶν ὄντων ἐνδεχόμενα ἐναντίως

ἔχειν, ἀνάγκη καὶ τὰς ἀρχὰς αὐτῶν εἶναι τοιαύτας.

Let us, then, take another starting-point 15for the succeeding inquiry. Every substance is by nature a sort of principle; therefore each can produce many similar to itself, as man man, animals in general animals, and plants plants. But in addition to this man alone of animals is also the source of certain actions; for no other animal would be said to act. Such principles, which are primary sources of movements, are 20called principles in the strict sense, and most properly such as have necessary results; God is doubtless a principle of this kind. The strict sense of 'principle' is not to be found among principles without movement, e.g. those of mathematics, though by analogy we use the name there also. For there, too, if the principle should change, practically all that is proved from it 25would alter; but its consequences do not change themselves, one being destroyed by another, except by destroying the assumption and, by its refutation, proving the truth. But man is the source of a kind of movement, for action is movement. But since, as elsewhere, the source or principle is the cause of all that exists or arises through it, we must take the same view as in 30demonstrations. For if, supposing the triangle to have its angles equal to two right angles, the quadrilateral must have them equal to four right angles, it is clear that the property of the triangle is the cause of this last. And if the triangle should change, then so must the quadrilateral, having six right angles if the triangle has three, and eight if it has four: but 35if the former does not change but remains as it was before, so must the quadrilateral. The necessity of what we are endeavouring to show is clear from the Analytics; at present we can neither affirm nor deny anything with precision except just this. Supposing there were no further cause for the triangle's having the above property, then the triangle would be a sort of 40principle or cause of all that comes later. So that if anything existent may have the opposite to its actual qualities, so of necessity may its principles.

1223a

1 ἐκ γὰρ τῶν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀναγκαῖον τὸ συμβαῖνον ἐστί, τὰ

δέ γε ἐντεῦθεν ἐνδέχεται γενέσθαι τἀναντία, καὶ ὃ ἐφ'

αὑτοῖς ἐστι τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, πολλὰ τῶν τοιούτων, καὶ ἀρχαὶ

τῶν τοιούτων εἰσὶν αὐτοί. ὥστε ὅσων πράξεων ὁ ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν

5 ἀρχὴ καὶ κύριος, φανερὸν ὅτι ἐνδέχεται καὶ γίνεσθαι καὶ

μή, καὶ ὅτι ἐφ' αὑτῷ ταῦτ' ἐστι γίνεσθαι καὶ μή, ὧν γε

κύριός ἐστι τοῦ εἶναι καὶ τοῦ μὴ εἶναι. ὅσα δ' ἐφ' αὑτῷ ἐστι

ποιεῖν ἢ μὴ ποιεῖν, αἴτιος τούτων αὐτὸς ἐστίν· καὶ ὅσων αἴτιος,

ἐφ' αὑτῷ. ἐπεὶ δ' ἥ τε ἀρετὴ καὶ ἡ κακία καὶ τὰ ἀπ'

10 αὐτῶν ἔργα τὰ μὲν ἐπαινετὰ τὰ δὲ ψεκτά (ψέγεται γὰρ

καὶ ἐπαινεῖται οὐ διὰ τὰ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἢ τύχης ἢ φύσεως

ὑπάρχοντα, ἀλλ' ὅσων αὐτοὶ αἴτιοι ἐσμέν· ὅσων γὰρ ἄλλος

αἴτιος, ἐκεῖνος καὶ τὸν ψόγον καὶ τὸν ἔπαινον ἔχει), δῆλον

ὅτι καὶ ἡ ἀρετὴ καὶ ἡ κακία περὶ ταῦτ' ἐστιν ὧν αὐτὸς

15 αἴτιος καὶ ἀρχὴ πράξεων. ληπτέον ἄρα ποίων αὐτὸς αἴτιος

καὶ ἀρχὴ πράξεων. πάντες μὲν δὴ ὁμολογοῦμεν, ὅσα μὲν

ἑκούσια καὶ κατὰ προαίρεσιν τὴν ἑκάστου, ἐκεῖνον αἴτιον εἶναι,

ὅσα δ' ἀκούσια, οὐκ αὐτὸν αἴτιον. πάντα δ' ὅσα προελόμενος,

καὶ ἑκὼν δῆλον ὅτι. δῆλον τοίνυν ὅτι καὶ ἡ ἀρετὴ καὶ ἡ

20 κακία τῶν ἑκουσίων ἂν εἴησαν.

1For what results from the necessary is necessary; but the results of the contingent might be the opposite of what they are; what depends on men themselves forms a great portion of contingent matters, and men themselves are the sources of such contingent results. So that it is clear that all the acts of which man is 5the principle and controller may either happen or not happen, and that their happening or not happening—those at least of whose existence or non-existence he has the control—depends on him. But of what it depends on him to do or not to do, he is himself the cause; and what he is the cause of depends on him. And since virtue and vice and the acts that spring from them are respectively praised 10or blamed—for we do not praise or blame for what is due to necessity, or chance, or nature, but only for what we ourselves are causes of; for what another is the cause of, for that he bears the blame or praise—it is clear that virtue and vice have to do with matters where the man himself is the cause and source of his acts. We must then ascertain of what actions he is himself the source and 15cause. Now, we all admit that of acts that are voluntary and done from the deliberate choice of each man he is the cause, but of involuntary acts he is not himself the cause; and all that he does from deliberate choice he clearly does voluntarily. It is clear then that virtue and vice have to do with voluntary acts.

Book 2,Chapter 7 (1223a21–1223b36)

ληπτέον ἄρα τί τὸ ἑκούσιον καὶ τί τὸ ἀκούσιον, καὶ τί

ἐστιν ἡ προαίρεσις, ἐπειδὴ ἡ ἀρετὴ καὶ ἡ κακία ὁρίζεται τούτοις.

πρῶτον σκεπτέον τὸ ἑκούσιον καὶ τὸ ἀκούσιον. τριῶν δὴ

τούτων ἕν τι δόξειεν <ἂν> εἶναι, ἤτοι κατ' ὄρεξιν ἢ κατὰ προαίρεσιν

25 ἢ κατὰ διάνοιαν, τὸ μὲν ἑκούσιον κατὰ τούτων τι, τὸ δ'

ἀκούσιον παρὰ τούτων τι. ἀλλὰ μὴν ἡ ὄρεξις εἰς τρία διαιρεῖται,

εἰς βούλησιν καὶ θυμὸν καὶ ἐπιθυμίαν· ὥστε ταῦτα

διαιρετέον, καὶ πρῶτον κατ' ἐπιθυμίαν.

δόξειε δ' ἂν πᾶν τὸ κατ' ἐπιθυμίαν ἑκούσιον εἶναι. τὸ γὰρ

30 ἀκούσιον πᾶν δοκεῖ εἶναι βίαιον, τὸ δὲ βίαιον λυπηρόν, καὶ πᾶν

ὃ ἀναγκαζόμενοι ποιοῦσιν ἢ πάσχουσιν, ὥσπερ καὶ Εὔηνος φησί

"πᾶν γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον πρᾶγμ' ἀνιαρὸν ἔφυ."

ὥστ' εἴ τι λυπηρόν, βίαιον, καὶ εἰ βίαιον, λυπηρόν. τὸ δὲ παρὰ

τὴν ἐπιθυμίαν πᾶν λυπηρόν (ἡ γὰρ ἐπιθυμία τοῦ ἡδέος), ὥστε

35 βίαιον καὶ ἀκούσιον. τὸ ἄρα κατ' ἐπιθυμίαν ἑκούσιον· ἐναντία

γὰρ ταῦτ' ἀλλήλοις. ἔτι ἡ μοχθηρία ἀδικώτερον πᾶσα ποιεῖ, ἡ

δ' ἀκρασία μοχθηρία δοκεῖ εἶναι, ὁ δ' ἀκρατὴς ὁ κατὰ τὴν

ἐπιθυμίαν παρὰ τὸν λογισμὸν οἷος πράττειν, ἀκρατεύεται

δ' ὅταν ἐνεργῇ κατ' αὐτήν, τὸ δ' ἀδικεῖν ἑκούσιον, ⌜ὥσθ' ὁ

We must then ascertain what is the voluntary and the involuntary, and what is 20deliberate choice, since by these virtue and vice are defined. First we must consider the voluntary and involuntary. Of three things it would seem to be one, agreement with either desire, or choice, or thought—that is, the voluntary would agree, the involuntary would be contrary to one of these. But again, desire is divided into three sorts, wish, anger, and sensual appetite. We have, then, to 25distinguish these, and first to consider the case of agreement with sensual appetite. Now all that is in agreement with sensual appetite would seem to be voluntary; for all the involuntary seems to be forced, and what is forced is painful, and so is all that men do and suffer from compulsion—as Evenus says, 'all to which we are compelled is unpleasant.' So that if an act is painful it is forced 30on us, and if forced it is painful. But all that is contrary to sensual appetite is painful—for such appetite is for the pleasant—and therefore forced and involuntary; what then agrees with sensual appetite is voluntary; for these two are opposites. Further, all wickedness makes one more unjust, and incontinence seems to be wickedness, the incontinent being the sort of man that acts in accordance 35with his appetite and contrary to his reason, and shows his incontinence when he acts in accordance with his appetite; but to act unjustly is voluntary, so that the incontinent will act unjustly by acting according to his appetite; he will then act voluntarily, and what is done according to appetite is voluntary.

1223b

1 ἀκρατὴς ἀδικήσει τῷ πράττειν κατ' ἐπιθυμίαν·⌟ ἑκὼν ἄρα

πράξει, καὶ ἑκούσιον τὸ κατ' ἐπιθυμίαν· * καὶ γὰρ ἄτοπον εἰ

δικαιότεροι ἔσονται οἱ ἀκρατεῖς γινόμενοι. —ἐκ μὲν τοίνυν

τούτων δόξειεν ἂν τὸ κατ' ἐπιθυμίαν ἑκούσιον εἶναι, ἐκ δὲ

5 τῶνδε τοὐναντίον. ἅπαν γὰρ ὃ ἑκών τις πράττει, βουλόμενος

πράττει, καὶ ὃ βούλεται, ἑκών. βούλεται δ' οὐθεὶς ὃ οἴεται

εἶναι κακόν. ἀλλὰ μὴν ὁ ἀκρατευόμενος οὐχ ἃ βούλεται

ποιεῖ· τὸ γὰρ παρ' ὃ οἴεται βέλτιστον εἶναι πράττειν δι' ἐπιθυμίαν

ἀκρατεύεσθαι ἐστίν. ὥστε ἅμα συμβήσεται τὸν αὐτὸν

10 ἑκόντα καὶ ἄκοντα πράττειν· τοῦτο δ' ἀδύνατον. ἔτι δ' ὁ

ἐγκρατὴς δικαιοπραγήσει, καὶ μᾶλλον τῆς ἀκρασίας. ἡ γὰρ

ἐγκράτεια ἀρετή, ἡ δ' ἀρετὴ δικαιοτέρους ποιεῖ. ἐγκρατεύεται

δ' ὅταν πράττῃ παρὰ τὴν ἐπιθυμίαν κατὰ τὸν λογισμόν.

ὥστ' εἰ τὸ μὲν δικαιοπραγεῖν ἑκούσιον, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸ

15 ἀδικεῖν (ἄμφω γὰρ δοκεῖ ταῦτα ἑκούσια εἶναι, καὶ ἀνάγκη,

εἰ θάτερον ἑκούσιον, καὶ θάτερον), τὸ δὲ παρὰ τὴν ἐπιθυμίαν

ἀκούσιον, ἅμα ἄρα ὁ αὐτὸς τὸ αὐτὸ πράξει ἑκὼν καὶ ἄκων.

ὁ δ' αὐτὸς λόγος καὶ περὶ θυμοῦ. ἀκρασία γὰρ καὶ ἐγκράτεια

καὶ θυμοῦ δοκεῖ εἶναι, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπιθυμίας· καὶ

20 τὸ παρὰ τὸν θυμὸν λυπηρόν, καὶ βίαιον ἡ κάθεξις, ὥστ' εἰ τὸ

βίαιον ἀκούσιον, τὸ κατὰ τὸν θυμὸν ἑκούσιον ἂν εἴη πᾶν.

ἔοικε δὲ καὶ Ἡράκλειτος λέγειν εἰς τὴν ἰσχὺν τοῦ θυμοῦ

βλέψας ὅτι λυπηρὰ ἡ κώλυσις αὐτοῦ· "χαλεπὸν γάρ" φησι

"θυμῷ μάχεσθαι· ψυχῆς γὰρ ὠνεῖται." εἰ δ' ἀδύνατον τὸ

25 αὐτὸν ἑκόντα καὶ ἄκοντα πράττειν ἅμα τὸ κατὰ τὸ αὐτὸ

τοῦ πράγματος, μᾶλλον ἑκούσιον τὸ κατὰ βούλησιν τοῦ κατ'

ἐπιθυμίαν καὶ θυμόν. τεκμήριον δέ· πολλὰ γὰρ πράττομεν

ἑκόντες ἄνευ ὀργῆς καὶ ἐπιθυμίας.

λείπεται ἄρα, εἰ τὸ βουλόμενον καὶ ἑκούσιον ταὐτό, σκέψασθαι.

30 φαίνεται δὲ καὶ τοῦτο ἀδύνατον. ὑπόκειται γὰρ ἡμῖν καὶ δοκεῖ

ἡ μοχθηρία ἀδικωτέρους ποιεῖν, ἡ δ' ἀκρασία μοχθηρία τις

φαίνεται· συμβήσεται δὲ τοὐναντίον. βούλεται μὲν γὰρ οὐθεὶς ἃ

οἴεται εἶναι κακά, πράττει δ' ὅταν γίνηται ἀκρατής· εἰ οὖν τὸ

μὲν ἀδικεῖν ἑκούσιον, τὸ δ' ἑκούσιον τὸ κατὰ βούλησιν, ὅταν

35 ἀκρατὴς γένηται, οὐκέτι ἀδικήσει, ἀλλ' ἔσται δικαιότερος ἢ πρὶν

γενέσθαι ἀκρατής. τοῦτο δ' ἀδύνατον.

1Indeed, it would be absurd that those who become incontinent should be more just. From these considerations, then, the act done from appetite would seem voluntary, but from the following the opposite: what a man does voluntarily he wishes, and what he wishes to do he does voluntarily. But no one wishes what he thinks to 5be bad; but surely the man who acts incontinently does not do what he wishes, for to act incontinently is to act through appetite contrary to what the man thinks best; whence it results that the same man acts at the same time both voluntarily and involuntarily; but this is impossible. Further, the continent will do a just act, and more so than incontinence; for continence is a virtue, and virtue 10makes men more just. Now one acts continently whenever he acts against his appetite in accord ance with his reason. So that if to act justly is voluntary as to act unjustly is—for both these seem to be voluntary, and if the one is, so must the other be—but action contrary to appetite is involuntary, then the same man will at the same time do the same thing voluntarily and involuntarily. The same argument 15may be applied to anger; for there is thought to be a continence and incontinence of anger just as there is of appetite; and what is contrary to our anger is painful, and the repression is forced, so that if the forced is involuntary, all acts done out of anger would be voluntary. Heraclitus, too, seems to be regarding the strength of anger when he says that the restraint of it is painful—'It is 20hard,' he says, 'to fight with anger; for it gives its life for what it desires.' But if it is impossible for a man voluntarily and involuntarily to do the same thing at the same time, and in regard to the same part of the act, then what is done from wish is more voluntary than that which is done from appetite or anger; and a proof of this is that we do many things voluntarily without anger or desire. 25It remains then to consider whether to act from wish and to act voluntarily are identical. But this too seems impossible. For we assumed and all admit that wickedness makes men more unjust, and incontinence seems a kind of wickedness. But the opposite will result from the hypothesis above; for no one wishes what he thinks bad, but does it when he becomes incontinent. If, then, to commit injustice 30is voluntary, and the voluntary is what agrees with wish, then when a man becomes incontinent he will be no longer committing injustice, but will be more just than before he became incontinent. But this is impossible. That the voluntary then is not action in accordance with desire, nor the involuntary action in opposition to it, is clear.

Book 2,Chapter 8 (1223b37–1225a33)

ὅτι μὲν τοίνυν οὐκ ἔστι τὸ ἑκούσιον τὸ κατὰ ὄρεξιν πράττειν,

οὐδ' ἀκούσιον τὸ παρὰ τὴν ὄρεξιν, φανερόν· ὅτι δ' οὐδὲ κατὰ προαίρεσιν,

πάλιν ἐκ τῶνδε δῆλον. τὸ μὲν γὰρ κατὰ βούλησιν ὡς

But again, that action in accordance with, or in opposition 35to, choice is not the true description of the voluntary and involuntary is clear from the following considerations: it has been shown that the act in agreement with wish was not involuntary, but rather that all that one wishes is voluntary, though it has also been shown that one may do voluntarily what one does not wish.

1224a

1 οὐκ ἀκούσιον ἀπεδείχθη, ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον πᾶν ὃ βούλεται καὶ

ἑκούσιον (ἀλλ' ὅτι καὶ μὴ βουλόμενον ἐνδέχεται πράττειν ἑκόντα,

τοῦτο δέδεικται μόνον)· πολλὰ δὲ βουλόμενοι πράττομεν ἐξαίφνης,

προαιρεῖται δ' οὐδεὶς οὐδὲν ἐξαίφνης.

5 εἰ δὲ ἀνάγκη μὲν ἦν τριῶν τούτων ἕν τι εἶναι τὸ ἑκούσιον, ἢ

κατ' ὄρεξιν ἢ κατὰ προαίρεσιν ἢ κατὰ διάνοιαν, τούτων δὲ τὰ δύο

μὴ ἐστί, λείπεται ἐν τῷ διανοούμενόν πως πράττειν εἶναι τὸ

ἑκούσιον. ἔτι δὲ μικρὸν προαγαγόντες τὸν λόγον, ἐπιθῶμεν τέλος

τῷ περὶ τοῦ ἑκουσίου καὶ ἀκουσίου διορισμῷ. δοκεῖ γὰρ τὸ βίᾳ καὶ

10 μὴ βίᾳ τι ποιεῖν οἰκεῖα τοῖς εἰρημένοις εἶναι· τό τε γὰρ βίαιον

ἀκούσιον, καὶ τὸ ἀκούσιον πᾶν βίαιον εἶναι φαμέν. ὥστε περὶ

τοῦ βίᾳ σκεπτέον πρῶτον, τί ἐστι καὶ πῶς ἔχει πρὸς τὸ ἑκούσιον

καὶ ἀκούσιον. δοκεῖ δὴ τὸ βίαιον καὶ τὸ ἀναγκαῖον ἀντικεῖσθαι,

καὶ ἡ βία καὶ ἡ ἀνάγκη, τῷ ἑκουσίῳ καὶ τῇ πειθοῖ

15 ἐπὶ τῶν πραττομένων. καθόλου δὲ τὸ βίαιον καὶ τὴν

ἀνάγκην καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀψύχων λέγομεν· καὶ γὰρ τὸν λίθον

ἄνω καὶ τὸ πῦρ κάτω βίᾳ καὶ ἀναγκαζόμενα φέρεσθαι

φαμέν. ταῦτα δ' ὅταν κατὰ τὴν φύσει καὶ τὴν καθ' αὑτὰ ὁρμὴν

φέρηται, οὐ βίᾳ, οὐ μὴν οὐδ' ἑκούσια λέγεται, ἀλλ' ἀνώνυμος

20 ἡ ἀντίθεσις. ὅταν δὲ παρὰ ταύτην, βίᾳ φαμέν. ὁμοίως δὲ

καὶ ἐπὶ ἐμψύχων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ζῴων ὁρῶμεν βίᾳ πολλὰ

καὶ πάσχοντα καὶ ποιοῦντα, ὅταν παρὰ τὴν ἐν αὐτῷ ὁρμὴν

ἔξωθέν τι κινῇ. ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἀψύχοις ἁπλῆ ἡ ἀρχή, ἐν δὲ

τοῖς ἐμψύχοις πλεονάζει· οὐ γὰρ ἀεὶ ἡ ὄρεξις καὶ ὁ λόγος

25 συμφωνεῖ. ὥστ' ἐπὶ μὲν τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ἁπλοῦν τὸ βίαιον,

ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀψύχων (οὐ γὰρ ἔχει λόγον καὶ ὄρεξιν

ἐναντίαν, ἀλλὰ τῇ ὀρέξει ζῇ)· ἐν δ' ἀνθρώπῳ ἔνεστιν ἄμφω,

καὶ ἔν τινι ἡλικίᾳ, ᾗ καὶ τὸ πράττειν ἀποδίδομεν. οὐ γάρ

φαμεν τὸ παιδίον πράττειν, οὐδὲ τὸ θηρίον, ἀλλὰ τὸν ἤδη

30 διὰ λογισμὸν πράττοντα. —δοκεῖ δὴ τὸ βίαιον ἅπαν λυπηρὸν

εἶναι, καὶ οὐθεὶς βίᾳ μὲν ποιεῖ, χαίρων δέ. διὸ περὶ τὸν

ἐγκρατῆ καὶ τὸν ἀκρατῆ πλείστη ἀμφισβήτησις ἐστίν. ἐναντίας

γὰρ ὁρμὰς ἔχων αὐτὸς ἕκαστος αὑτῷ πράττει, ὥσθ'

ὅ τ' ἐγκρατὴς βίᾳ, φασίν, ἀφέλκει αὑτὸν ἀπὸ τῶν ἡδέων

35 ἐπιθυμιῶν (ἀλγεῖ γὰρ ἀφέλκων πρὸς ἀντιτείνουσαν τὴν ὄρεξιν),

ὅ τ' ἀκρατὴς βίᾳ παρὰ τὸν λογισμόν. ἧττον δὲ δοκεῖ

λυπεῖσθαι· ἡ γὰρ ἐπιθυμία τοῦ ἡδέος, ᾗ ἀκολουθεῖ χαίρων,

ὥστε ὁ ἀκρατὴς μᾶλλον ἑκὼν καὶ οὐ βίᾳ, ὅτι οὐ λυπηρῶς. ἡ

δὲ πειθὼ τῇ βίᾳ καὶ ἀνάγκῃ ἀντιτίθεται. ὁ δ' ἐγκρατὴς

1But we do many things from wish suddenly, but no one deliberately chooses an act suddenly. But if, as we saw, the voluntary must be one of these three—action according either to desire, choice, or thought, and it is not two of these, the remaining alternative is that the voluntary consists in action 5with some kind of thought. Advancing a little further, let us close our delimitation of the voluntary and the involuntary. To act on compulsion or not on compulsion seems connected with these terms; for we say that the enforced is involuntary, and all the involuntary is enforced: so that first we must consider the action done on compulsion, its nature and its relation to the 10voluntary and the involuntary. Now the enforced and the necessary, force and necessity, seem opposed to the voluntary and to persuasion in the case of acts done. Generally, we speak of enforced action and necessity even in the case of inanimate things; for we say that a stone moves upwards and fire downwards on compulsion and by force; but when they move according to their natural 15internal tendency, we do not call the act one due to force; nor do we call it voluntary either; there is no name for this antithesis; but when they move contrary to this tendency, then we say they move by force. So, too, among things living and among animals we often see things suffering and acting from force, when something from without moves them contrary to their own 20internal tendency. Now in the inanimate the moving principle is simple, but in the animated there is more than one principle; for desire and reason do not always agree. And so with the other animals the action on compulsion is simple (just as in the inanimate), for they have not desire and reason opposing one another, but live by desire; but man has both, that is at a certain age, 25to which we attribute also the power of action; for we do not use this term of the child, nor of the brute, but only of the man who has come to act from reason. So the compulsory act seems always painful, and no one acts from force and yet with pleasure. Hence there arises much dispute about the continent and incontinent, for each of them acts with two tendencies mutually 30opposed, so that (as the expression goes) the continent forcibly drags himself from the pleasant appetites (for he feels pain in dragging himself away against the resistance of desire), while the incontinent forcibly drags himself contrary to his reason. But still the latter seems less to be in pain; for appetite is for the pleasant, and this he follows with delight; so that the 35incontinent rather acts voluntarily and not from force, because he acts without pain. But persuasion is opposed to force and necessity, and the continent goes towards what he is persuaded of, and so proceeds not from force but voluntarily. But appetite leads without persuading, being devoid of reason.

1224b

1 ἐφ' ἃ πέπεισται ἄγει, καὶ πορεύεται οὐ βίᾳ, ἀλλ' ἑκών. ἡ

δὲ ἐπιθυμία οὐ πείσασα ἄγει· οὐ γὰρ μετέχει λόγου. ὅτι

μὲν οὖν δοκοῦσιν οὗτοι μόνοι βίᾳ καὶ ἄκοντες ποιεῖν, καὶ διὰ

τίν' αἰτίαν, ὅτι καθ' ὁμοιότητά τινα τοῦ βίᾳ, καθ' ἣν καὶ

5 ἐπὶ τῶν ἀψύχων λέγομεν, εἴρηται· οὐ μὴν ἀλλ' εἴ τις

προσθῇ τὸ ἐν τῷ διορισμῷ προσκείμενον, κἀκεῖ λύεται τὸ

λεχθέν. ὅταν μὲν γάρ τι τῶν ἔξωθεν παρὰ τὴν ἐν αὐτῷ

ὁρμὴν κινῇ ἢ ἠρεμίζῃ, βίᾳ φαμέν, ὅταν δὲ μή, οὐ βίᾳ· ἐν

δὲ τῷ ἀκρατεῖ καὶ ἐγκρατεῖ ἡ καθ' αὑτὸν ὁρμὴ ἐνοῦσα ἄγει

10 (ἄμφω γὰρ ἔχει)· ὥστ' οὐ βίᾳ οὐδέτερος, ἀλλ' ἑκὼν διά γε

ταῦτα πράττοι ἄν, οὐδ' ἀναγκαζόμενος. τὴν γὰρ ἔξωθεν

ἀρχήν, τὴν παρὰ τὴν ὁρμὴν ἢ ἐμποδίζουσαν ἢ κινοῦσαν,

ἀνάγκην λέγομεν, ὥσπερ εἴ τις λαβὼν τὴν χεῖρα τύπτοι

τινὰ ἀντιτείνοντος καὶ τῷ βούλεσθαι καὶ τῷ ἐπιθυμεῖν· ὅταν

15 δ' ἔσωθεν ἡ ἀρχή, οὐ βίᾳ. ἔτι καὶ ἡδονὴ καὶ λύπη ἐν

ἀμφοτέροις ἔνεστι. καὶ γὰρ ὁ ἐγκρατευόμενος λυπεῖται παρὰ

τὴν ἐπιθυμίαν πράττων ἤδη, καὶ χαίρει τὴν ἀπ' ἐλπίδος

ἡδονήν, ὅτι ὕστερον ὠφεληθήσεται, ἢ καὶ ἤδη ὠφελεῖται

ὑγιαίνων· καὶ ὁ ἀκρατὴς χαίρει μὲν τυγχάνων ἀκρατευόμενος

20 οὗ ἐπιθυμεῖ, λυπεῖται δὲ τὴν ἀπ' ἐλπίδος λύπην,

οἴεται γὰρ κακὸν πράττειν. ὥστε τὸ μὲν βίᾳ ἑκάτερον

φάναι ποιεῖν ἔχει λόγον, καὶ διὰ τὴν ὄρεξιν καὶ διὰ τὸν

λογισμὸν ἑκάτερον ἄκοντα ποτὲ πράττειν· κεχωρισμένα γὰρ

ὄντα ἑκάτερα ἐκκρούεται ὑπ' ἀλλήλων. ὅθεν καὶ ἐπὶ τὴν

25 ὅλην μεταφέρουσι ψυχήν, ὅτι τῶν ἐν ψυχῇ τι τοιοῦτον ὁρῶσιν.

ἐπὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν μορίων ἐνδέχεται τοῦτο λέγειν· ἡ δ'

ὅλη ἑκοῦσα ψυχὴ καὶ τοῦ ἀκρατοῦς καὶ τοῦ ἐγκρατοῦς πράττει,

βίᾳ δ' οὐδέτερος, ἀλλὰ τῶν ἐν ἐκείνοις τι, ἐπεὶ καὶ φύσει

ἀμφότερα ἔχομεν. καὶ γὰρ ὁ λόγος φύσει ὑπάρχει, ὅτι

30 ἐωμένης τῆς γενέσεως καὶ μὴ πηρωθείσης ἐνέσται, καὶ ἡ

ἐπιθυμία, ὅτι εὐθὺς ἐκ γενετῆς ἀκολουθεῖ καὶ ἔνεστιν. σχεδὸν δὲ

τούτοις δυσὶ τὸ φύσει διορίζομεν, τῷ τε ὅσα εὐθὺς γιγνομένοις

ἀκολουθεῖ πᾶσι, καὶ ὅσα ἐωμένης τῆς γενέσεως εὐθυπορεῖν

γίγνεται ἡμῖν, οἷον πολιὰ καὶ γῆρας καὶ τἆλλα τὰ

35 τοιαῦτα. ὥστε μὴ κατὰ φύσιν ἑκάτερος πράττει, ἁπλῶς δὲ κατὰ

φύσιν ἑκάτερος, οὐ τὴν αὐτήν. αἱ μὲν οὖν περὶ τὸν ἀκρατῆ

καὶ ἐγκρατῆ ἀπορίαι <αὗται> περὶ τοῦ βίᾳ πράττειν ἢ ἀμφοτέρους

ἢ τὸν ἕτερον, ὥστε ἢ μὴ ἑκόντας ἢ ἅμα βίᾳ καὶ ἑκόντας,

εἰ δὲ τὸ βίᾳ ἀκούσιον, ἅμα ἑκόντας καὶ ἄκοντας πράττειν·

1We have, then, shown that these alone seem to act from force and involuntarily, and why they seem to, viz. from a certain likeness to the enforced action, in virtue of which we attribute enforced action also to the inanimate. Yet if we add the addition made in our definition, there also the statement becomes untrue. 5For it is only when something external moves a thing, or brings it to rest against its own internal tendency, that we say this happens by force; otherwise we do not say that it happens by force. But in the continent and the incontinent it is the present internal tendency that leads them, for they have both tendencies. So that neither acts on compulsion nor by force, but, as far at least as the 10above goes, voluntarily. For the external moving principle, that hinders or moves in opposition to the internal tendency, is what we call necessity, e.g. when we strike some one with the hand of one whose wish and appetite alike resist; but when the principle is from within, there is no force. Further, there is both pleasure and pain in both; for the continent feels pain now in acting against his 15appetite, but has the pleasure of hope, i.e. that he will be presently benefited, or even the pleasure of being actually at present benefited because he is in health; while the incontinent is pleased at getting through his incontinency what he desires, but has a pain of expectation, thinking that he is doing ill. So that to say that both act from compulsion is not without reason, the one sometimes 20acting involuntarily owing to his desire, the other owing to his reason; these two, being separated, are thrust out by one another. Whence men apply the language to the soul as a whole, because we see something like the above in the case of the elements of the soul. Now of the parts of the soul this may be said; but the soul as a whole, whether in the continent or the incontinent, acts voluntarily, 25and neither acts on compulsion, but one of the elements in them does, since by nature we have both. For reason is in them by nature, because if growth is permitted and not maimed, it will be there; and appetite, because it accompanies and is present in us from birth. But these are practically the two marks by which we define the natural—it is either that which is found with us as soon as we 30are born, or that which comes to us if growth is allowed to proceed regularly, e.g. grey hair, old age, and so on. So that either acts, in a way, contrary to nature, and yet, broadly speaking, according to nature, but not the same nature. The puzzles then about the continent and incontinent are these—do both, or one of them, act on compulsion, so that they act involuntarily or else at the same time 35both on compulsion and voluntarily; that is, if the compulsory is involuntary, both voluntarily and involuntarily? And it is tolerably clear from the above how these puzzles are to be met. In another way, too, men are said to act by force and compulsion without any disagreement between reason and desire in them, viz.

1225a

1 σχεδὸν δὲ ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων δῆλον ἡμῖν ὡς ἀπαντητέον.

λέγονται δὲ κατ' ἄλλον τρόπον βίᾳ καὶ ἀναγκασθέντες

πρᾶξαι, οὐ διαφωνοῦντος τοῦ λόγου καὶ τῆς ὀρέξεως, ὅταν

πράττωσιν ὃ καὶ λυπηρὸν καὶ φαῦλον ὑπολαμβάνουσιν,

5 ἀλλ' ἂν μὴ τοῦτο πράττωσι, πληγαὶ ἢ δεσμοὶ ἢ θάνατοι

ὦσιν. ταῦτα γάρ φασιν ἀναγκασθέντες πρᾶξαι. ἢ οὔ, ἀλλὰ

πάντες ἑκόντες ποιοῦσιν αὐτὸ τοῦτο; ἔξεστι γὰρ μὴ

ποιεῖν, ἀλλ' ἐκεῖνο ὑπομεῖναι τὸ πάθος. ἔτι ἴσως τούτων τὰ

μὲν φαίη τις ἂν τὰ δ' οὔ. ὅσα μὲν γὰρ ἐφ' αὑτῷ τῶν

10 τοιούτων μὴ ὑπάρξαι ἢ ὑπάρξαι, ἀεὶ ὅσα πράττει ἃ μὴ

βούλεται, ἑκὼν πράττει, καὶ οὐ βίᾳ· ὅσα δὲ μὴ ἐφ' αὑτῷ

τῶν τοιούτων, βίᾳ πώς, οὐ μέντοι γ' ἁπλῶς, ὅτι οὐκ αὐτὸ

τοῦτο προαιρεῖται ὃ πράττει, ἀλλ' οὗ ἕνεκα, ἐπεὶ καὶ ἐν τούτοις

ἐστί τις διαφορά. εἰ γὰρ ἵνα μὴ λάβῃ ψηλαφῶν ἀποκτείνοι,

15 γελοῖος ἂν εἴη, εἰ λέγοι ὅτι βίᾳ καὶ ἀναγκαζόμενος,

ἀλλὰ δεῖ μεῖζον κακὸν καὶ λυπηρότερον εἶναι, ὃ πείσεται

μὴ ποιήσας. οὕτω γὰρ ἀναγκαζόμενος καὶ [μὴ] βίᾳ πράξει,

ἢ οὐ φύσει, ὅταν κακὸν ἀγαθοῦ ἕνεκα ἢ μείζονος κακοῦ ἀπολύσεως

πράττῃ, καὶ ἄκων γε· οὐ γὰρ ἐφ' αὑτῷ ταῦτα. διὸ

20 καὶ τὸν ἔρωτα πολλοὶ ἀκούσιον τιθέασιν, καὶ θυμοὺς ἐνίους καὶ

τὰ φυσικά, ὅτι ἰσχυρὰ καὶ ὑπὲρ τὴν φύσιν· καὶ συγγνώμην

ἔχομεν ὡς πεφυκότα βιάζεσθαι τὴν φύσιν. καὶ μᾶλλον

ἂν δόξειε βίᾳ καὶ ἄκων πράττειν, ἵνα μὴ ἀλγῇ ἰσχυρῶς,

ἢ ἵνα μὴ ἠρέμα, καὶ ὅλως ἵνα μὴ ἀλγῇ ἢ ἵνα

25 [μὴ] χαίρῃ. τὸ γὰρ ἐφ' αὑτῷ, εἰς ὃ ἀνάγεται ὅλον, τοῦτ' ἐστιν

ὃ ἡ αὐτοῦ φύσις οἵα τε φέρειν· ὃ δὲ μὴ οἵα τε, μήδ' ἐστὶ

τῆς ἐκείνου φύσει ὀρέξεως ἢ λογισμοῦ, οὐκ ἐφ' αὑτῷ. διὸ καὶ

τοὺς ἐνθουσιῶντας καὶ προλέγοντας, καίπερ διανοίας ἔργον

ποιοῦντας, ὅμως οὔ φαμεν ἐφ' αὑτοῖς εἶναι, οὔτ' εἰπεῖν ἃ εἶπον,

30 οὔτε πρᾶξαι ἃ ἔπραξαν. ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδὲ δι' ἐπιθυμίαν· ὥστε

καὶ διάνοιαί τινες καὶ πάθη οὐκ ἐφ' ἡμῖν εἰσίν, ἢ πράξεις

αἱ κατὰ τὰς τοιαύτας διανοίας καὶ λογισμούς, ἀλλ' ὥσπερ

Φιλόλαος ἔφη εἶναί τινας λόγους κρείττους ἡμῶν.

1when they do what they consider both painful and bad, but they are threatened with stripes, imprisonment, or death, if they do not do it. Such acts they say they did on compulsion. Or shall we deny this, and say that all do the act itself voluntarily? for they had the power to abstain from doing it, and to submit to the 5suffering. Again perhaps one might say that some such acts were voluntary and some not. For whatever of the acts that a man does without wishing them he has the power to do or abstain from doing, these he always does voluntarily and not by force; but those in which he has not this power, he does by force in a sense (but not absolutely), because he does not choose the very thing he does, but the purpose 10for which it is done, since there is a difference, too, in this. For if a man were to murder another that he might not catch him at blind man's buff he would be laughed at if he were to say that he acted by force, and on compulsion; there ought to be some greater and more painful evil that he would suffer if he did not commit the murder. For then he will act on compulsion, and either by force, or at 15least not by nature, when he does something evil for the sake of good, or release from a greater evil; then he will at least act involuntarily, for such acts are not subject to his control. Hence, many regard love, anger in some cases, and natural conditions, as involuntary, as being too strong for nature; we feel indulgence for them as things capable of overpowering nature. A man would more seem to act 20from force and involuntarily, if he acted to escape violent than if to escape gentle pain, and generally if to escape pain than if to get pleasure. For that which depends on him—and all turns on this—is what his nature is able to bear; what it is not, what is not under the control of his natural desire or reason, that does not depend on him. Therefore those who are inspired and prophesy, though their 25act is one of thought, we still say have it not in their own power either to say what they said, or to do what they did. And so of acts done through appetite. So that some thoughts and passions do not depend on us, nor the acts following such thoughts and reasonings, but, as Philolaus said, some arguments are too strong for us. So that if the voluntary and involuntary had to be considered in reference 30to the presence of force as well as from other points of view, let this be our final distinction. Nothing obscures the idea of the voluntary so much as the use of the expression that men act from force and yet voluntarily.

Book 2,Chapter 9 (1225a34–1225b16)

ὥστ' εἰ τὸ ἑκούσιον καὶ ἀκούσιον καὶ πρὸς τὸ βίᾳ ἔδει σκέψασθαι,

35 τοῦτο μὲν οὕτω διῃρήσθω (οἱ γὰρ μάλιστ' ἐμποδίζοντες

τὸ ἑκούσιον ** ὡς βίᾳ πράττοντες, ἀλλ' ἑκόντες)· ἐπεὶ δὲ τοῦτ' ἔχει τέλος,

καὶ οὔτε τῇ ὀρέξει οὔτε τῇ προαιρέσει τὸ ἑκούσιον ὥρισται, λοιπὸν

Since we have finished this subject, and we have found the voluntary not to be defined either by desire or by choice, it remains to define it as that which depends on thought. The 35voluntary, then, seems opposed to the involuntary, and to act with knowledge of the person acted on, instrument and tendency—for sometimes one knows the object, e.

1225b

1 δὴ ὁρίσασθαι τὸ κατὰ τὴν διάνοιαν. δοκεῖ δὴ ἐναντίον εἶναι

τὸ ἑκούσιον τῷ ἀκουσίῳ, καὶ τὸ εἰδότα ἢ ὃν ἢ ᾧ ἢ οὗ ἕνεκα

(ἐνίοτε γὰρ οἶδε μὲν ὅτι πατήρ, ἀλλ' οὐχ ἵνα ἀποκτείνῃ, ἀλλ'

ἵνα σώσῃ, ὥσπερ αἱ Πελιάδες, ἤτοι ὡς τοδὶ μὲν πόμα, ἀλλ'

5 ὡς φίλτρον καὶ οἶνον, τὸ δ' ἦν κώνειον) τῷ ἀγνοοῦντα καὶ

ὃν καὶ ᾧ καὶ ὃ δι' ἄγνοιαν, μὴ κατὰ συμβεβηκός· τὸ δὲ

δι' ἄγνοιαν, καὶ ὃ καὶ ᾧ καὶ ὅν, ἀκούσιον· τὸ ἐναντίον ἄρ'

ἑκούσιον. ὅσα μὲν οὖν ἐφ' ἑαυτῷ ὂν μὴ πράττειν πράττει μὴ

ἀγνοῶν καὶ δι' αὑτόν, ἑκούσια ταῦτ' ἀνάγκη εἶναι, καὶ τὸ

10 ἑκούσιον τοῦτ' ἐστίν· ὅσα δ' ἀγνοῶν καὶ διὰ τὸ ἀγνοεῖν, ἄκων.

ἐπεὶ δὲ τὸ ἐπίστασθαι καὶ τὸ εἰδέναι διττόν, ἓν μὲν τὸ ἔχειν,

ἓν δὲ τὸ χρῆσθαι τῇ ἐπιστήμη, ὁ ἔχων μὴ χρώμενος δὲ ἔστι

μὲν ὡς δικαίως <ἂν> ἀγνοῶν λέγοιτο, ἔστι δὲ ὡς οὐ δικαίως, οἷον

εἰ δι' ἀμέλειαν μὴ ἐχρῆτο. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ μὴ ἔχων τις

15 ψέγοιτο ἄν, εἰ ὃ ῥᾴδιον ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἦν, μὴ ἔχει δι' ἀμέλειαν

ἢ ἡδονὴν ἢ λύπην. ταῦτ' οὖν προσδιοριστέον.

1g. as father, but not that the tendency of the act is to kill, not to save, as in the case of Pelias's daughters; or knows the object to be a drink but takes it to be a philtre or wine when it was really hemlock—seems opposed to action in ignorance of the person, instrument, or thing, if, that is, the action 5is essentially the effect of ignorance. All that is done owing to ignorance, whether of person, instrument, or thing, is involuntary; the opposite therefore is voluntary. All, then, that a man does—it being in his power to abstain from doing it—not in ignorance and owing to himself must needs be voluntary; voluntariness is this. But all that he does in ignorance and owing to his 10ignorance, he does involuntarily. But since science or knowledge is of two sorts, one the possession, the other the use of knowledge, the man who has, but does not use knowledge may in a sense be justly called ignorant, but in another sense not justly, e.g. if he had not used his knowledge owing to carelessness. Similarly, one might be blamed for not having the knowledge, if it were 15something easy or necessary and he does not have it because of carelessness or pleasure or pain. This, then, we must add to our definition. Such, then, is the completion of our distinction of the voluntary and the involuntary.

Book 2,Chapter 10 (1225b17–1227b11)

περὶ μὲν οὖν τοῦ ἑκουσίου καὶ ἀκουσίου διωρίσθω τοῦτον τὸν

τρόπον· περὶ δὲ προαιρέσεως μετὰ τοῦτο λέγωμεν, διαπορήσαντες

πρῶτον τῷ λόγῳ περὶ αὐτῆς. διστάσειε γὰρ ἄν τις ἐν

20 τῷ γένει πέφυκε καὶ ἐν ποίῳ θεῖναι αὐτὴν χρή, καὶ πότερον

οὐ ταὐτὸν τὸ ἑκούσιον καὶ τὸ προαιρετὸν ἢ ταὐτὸν ἐστίν. μάλιστα

δὲ λέγεται παρά τινων, καὶ ζητοῦντι δόξειε δ' ἂν δυοῖν

εἶναι θάτερον ἡ προαίρεσις, ἤτοι δόξα ἢ ὄρεξις· ἀμφότερα

γὰρ φαίνεται παρακολουθοῦντα. ὅτι μὲν οὖν οὐκ ἔστιν ὄρεξις

25 φανερόν. ἢ γὰρ βούλησις ἂν εἴη ἢ ἐπιθυμία ἢ θυμός· οὐθεὶς

γὰρ ὀρέγεται μηθὲν πεπονθὼς τούτων. θυμὸς μὲν οὖν καὶ

ἐπιθυμία καὶ τοῖς θηρίοις ὑπάρχει, προαίρεσις δ' οὔ. ἔτι δὲ

καὶ οἷς ὑπάρχει ἄμφω ταῦτα, πολλὰ καὶ ἄνευ θυμοῦ καὶ

ἐπιθυμίας προαιροῦνται· καὶ ἐν τοῖς πάθεσιν ὄντες οὐ προαιροῦνται,

30 ἀλλὰ καρτεροῦσιν. ἔτι ἐπιθυμία μὲν καὶ θυμὸς ἀεὶ

μετὰ λύπης, προαιρούμεθα δὲ πολλὰ καὶ ἄνευ λύπης.

ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδὲ βούλησις καὶ προαίρεσις ταὐτόν. βούλονται

μὲν γὰρ ἔνια [ταὐτὸν] καὶ τῶν ἀδυνάτων εἰδότες, οἷον βασιλεύειν

τε πάντων ἀνθρώπων καὶ ἀθάνατοι εἶναι, προαιρεῖται δ' οὐθεὶς

35 μὴ ἀγνοῶν ὅτι ἀδύνατον, οὐδ' ὅλως ἃ δυνατὸν μέν, μὴ ἐφ'

αὑτῷ δ' οἴεται πρᾶξαι ἢ μὴ πρᾶξαι. ὥστε τοῦτο μὲν φανερόν,

ὅτι ἀνάγκη τὸ προαιρετὸν τῶν ἐφ' αὑτῷ τι εἶναι.

Let us next speak about choice, first raising various difficulties about it. For one might doubt to what genus it belongs and in which to place it, and whether 20the voluntary and the chosen are or are not the same. Now some insist that choice is either opinion or desire, and the inquirer might well think that it was one or the other, for both are found accompanying it. Now that it is not desire is plain; for then it would be either wish, appetite, or anger, for none desires without having experienced one of these feelings. But anger and 25appetite belong also to the brutes while choice does not; further, even those who are capable of both the former often choose without either anger or appetite; and when they are under the influence of those passions they do not choose but remain unmoved by them. Further, anger and appetite always involve pain, but we often choose without pain. But neither are wish and choice the same; 30for we often wish for what we know is impossible, e.g. to rule all mankind or to be immortal, but no one chooses such things unless ignorant of the impossibility, nor even what is possible, generally, if he does not think it in his power to do or to abstain from doing it. So that this is clear, that the object of choice must be one of the things in our own power. Similarly, choice 35is not an opinion nor, generally, what one thinks; for the object of choice was something in one's power and many things may be thought that are not, e.g.

1226a

1 ὁμοίως δὲ δῆλον ὅτι οὐδὲ δόξα, οὐδ' ἁπλῶς εἴ τις οἴεταί τι.

τῶν γὰρ ἐφ' αὑτῷ τι ἦν τὸ προαιρετόν, δοξάζομεν δὲ

πολλὰ καὶ τῶν οὐκ ὄντων ἐφ' ἡμῖν, οἷον τὴν διάμετρον σύμμετρον.

ἔτι οὐκ ἔστι προαίρεσις ἀληθὴς ἢ ψευδής. οὐδὲ δὴ ἡ

5 τῶν ἐφ' αὑτῷ ὄντων πρακτῶν δόξα, ᾗ τυγχάνομεν οἰόμενοι

δεῖν τι πράττειν ἢ οὐ πράττειν. κοινὸν δὲ περὶ δόξης τοῦτο

καὶ βουλήσεως· οὐθεὶς γὰρ τέλος οὐδὲν προαιρεῖται, ἀλλὰ τὰ

πρὸς τὸ τέλος· λέγω δ' οἷον οὐθεὶς ὑγιαίνειν προαιρεῖται,

ἀλλὰ περιπατεῖν ἢ καθῆσθαι τοῦ ὑγιαίνειν ἕνεκεν, οὐδ' εὐδαιμονεῖν,

10 ἀλλὰ χρηματίζεσθαι ἢ κινδυνεύειν τοῦ εὐδαιμονεῖν

ἕνεκα· καὶ ὅλως δηλοῖ ἀεὶ προαιρούμενος τί τε καὶ τίνος

ἕνεκα προαιρεῖται, ἔστι δὲ τὸ μὲν τίνος, οὗ ἕνεκα προαιρεῖται

ἄλλο, τὸ δὲ τί, ὃ προαιρεῖται ἕνεκα ἄλλου. βούλεται δέ γε

μάλιστα τὸ τέλος, καὶ δοξάζει δεῖν καὶ ὑγιαίνειν καὶ εὖ

15 πράττειν. ὥστε φανερὸν διὰ τούτων ὅτι ἄλλο καὶ δόξης καὶ

βουλήσεως. βούλεσθαι μὲν <γὰρ> καὶ δόξα μάλιστα τοῦ τέλους,

προαίρεσις δ' οὐκ ἔστιν.

ὅτι μὲν οὖν οὐκ ἔστιν οὔτε βούλησις οὔτε δόξα οὔθ' ὑπόληψις

ἁπλῶς ἡ προαίρεσις, δῆλον· τί δὲ διαφέρει τούτων, καὶ πῶς

20 ἔχει πρὸς τὸ ἑκούσιον; ἅμα δὲ δῆλον ἔσται, καὶ τί ἐστι προαίρεσις.

ἔστι δὴ τῶν δυνατῶν καὶ εἶναι καὶ μὴ τὰ μὲν τοιαῦτα ὥστε ἐνδέχεσθαι

βουλεύσασθαι περὶ αὐτῶν· περὶ ἐνίων δ' οὐκ ἐνδέχεται.

τὰ μὲν γὰρ δυνατὰ μέν ἐστι καὶ εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἐφ'

ἡμῖν αὐτῶν ἡ γένεσις ἐστίν, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν διὰ φύσιν τὰ δὲ δι'

25 ἄλλας αἰτίας γίνεται, περὶ ὧν οὐδεὶς ἂν ἐγχειρήσειε βουλεύεσθαι

μὴ ἀγνοῶν· περὶ ὧν δ' ἐνδέχεται μὴ μόνον τὸ εἶναι καὶ

μή, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ ** βουλεύσασθαι τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, ταῦτα δ'

ἐστὶν ὅσα ἐφ' ἡμῖν ἐστι πρᾶξαι ἢ μὴ πρᾶξαι. διὸ οὐ βουλευόμεθα

περὶ τῶν ἐν Ἰνδοῖς, οὐδὲ πῶς ἂν ὁ κύκλος τετραγωνισθείη.

30 τὰ μὲν γὰρ οὐκ ἐφ' ἡμῖν· ⌜τὸ δ' ὅλως οὐ πρακτόν

⌞ἀλλ' οὐδὲ περὶ τῶν ἐφ' ἡμῖν πρακτῶν περὶ ἁπάντων.⌝ (ᾗ καὶ

δῆλον ὅτι οὐδὲ δόξα ἁπλῶς ἡ προαίρεσις ἐστίν)· *⌟, τὰ δὲ προαιρετὰ

καὶ πρακτὰ τῶν ἐφ' ἡμῖν ὄντων ἐστίν. * διὸ καὶ ἀπορήσειεν

ἄν τις, τί δή ποθ' οἱ μὲν ἰατροὶ βουλεύονται περὶ ὧν

35 ἔχουσι τὴν ἐπιστήμην, οἱ δὲ γραμματικοὶ οὔ; αἴτιον δ' ὅτι

διχῇ γινομένης τῆς ἁμαρτίας (ἢ γὰρ λογιζόμενοι ἁμαρτάνομεν

ἢ κατὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν αὐτὸ δρῶντες) ἐν μὲν τῇ ἰατρικῇ

ἀμφοτέρως ἐνδέχεται ἁμαρτεῖν, ἐν δὲ τῇ γραμματικῇ κατὰ

1that the diagonal is commensurable; and further, choice is not either true or false. Nor yet is choice identical with our opinion about matters of practice which are in our own power, as when we think that we ought to do or not to do something. This argument applies to wish as well as to opinion; 5for no one chooses an end, but the means to an end, e.g. no one chooses to be in health, but to walk or to sit for the purpose of keeping well; no one chooses to be to happy but to make money or run risks for the purpose of being happy. And in general, in choosing we show both what we choose and for what we choose it, the latter being that for which we choose something 10else, the former that which we choose for something else. But it is the end that we specially wish for, and we think we ought to be healthy and happy. So that it is clear through this that choice is different both from opinion and from wish; for wish and opinion are specially of the end, but choice is not. It is clear, then, that choice is not wish, or opinion, or 15judgement simply. But in what does it differ from these? How is it related to the voluntary? The answer to these questions will also make it clear what choice is. Of possible things, then, there are some such that we can deliberate about them, while about others we cannot. For some things are possible, but the production of them is not in our power, some being due to nature, 20others to other causes; and about these none would attempt to deliberate except in ignorance. But about others, not only existence and non-existence is possible, but also human deliberation; these are things the doing or not doing of which is in our own power. Therefore, we do not deliberate about the affairs of the Indians nor how the circle may be squared; for the 25first are not in our power, the second is wholly beyond the power of action; but we do not even deliberate about all things that may be done and that are in our power (by which it is clear that choice is not opinion simply), though the matters of choice and action belong to the class of things in our own power. One might then raise the problem—why do doctors deliberate 30about matters within their science, but not grammarians? The reason is that error may occur in two ways (either in reasoning or in perception when we are engaged in the very act), and in medicine one may go wrong in both ways, but in grammar one can do so only in respect of the perception and action, and if they inquired about this there would be no end to their inquiries. 35Since then choice is neither opinion nor wish singly nor yet both (for no one chooses suddenly, though he thinks he ought to act, and wishes, suddenly), it must be com pounded of both, for both are found in a man choosing.

1226b

1 τὴν αἴσθησιν καὶ πρᾶξιν, περὶ ἧς ἂν σκοπῶσιν, εἰς ἄπειρον

ἥξουσιν. —ἐπειδὴ οὖν οὔτε δόξα οὔτε βούλησίς ἐστι προαίρεσίς

ἐστιν ὡς ἑκάτερον, οὐδ' ἄμφω (ἐξαίφνης γὰρ προαιρεῖται μὲν

οὐθείς, δοκεῖ δὲ πράττειν καὶ βούλονται)· ὡς ἐξ ἀμφοῖν ἄρα.

5 ἄμφω γὰρ ὑπάρχει τῷ προαιρουμένῳ ταῦτα. —ἀλλὰ πῶς

ἐκ τούτων σκεπτέον; δηλοῖ δέ πως καὶ τὸ ὄνομα αὐτό. ἡ

γὰρ προαίρεσις αἵρεσις μὲν ἐστίν, οὐχ ἁπλῶς δέ, ἀλλ' ἑτέρου

πρὸ ἑτέρου· τοῦτο δὲ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄνευ σκέψεως καὶ βουλῆς.

διὸ ἐκ δόξης βουλευτικῆς ἐστιν ἡ προαίρεσις.

10 περὶ μὲν δὴ τοῦ τέλους οὐδεὶς βουλεύεται, ἀλλὰ τοῦτο κεῖται

πᾶσι, περὶ δὲ τῶν εἰς τοῦτο τεινόντων, πότερον τόδε ἢ τόδε συντείνει,

ἢ δεδογμένου τοῦτο πῶς ἔσται. βουλευόμεθα δὲ τοῦτο πάντες,

ἕως ἂν εἰς ἡμᾶς ἀναγάγωμεν τῆς γενέσεως τὴν ἀρχήν. εἰ δὴ

προαιρεῖται μὲν μηθεὶς μὴ παρασκευασάμενος μηδὲ βουλευσάμενος,

15 εἰ χεῖρον ἢ βέλτιον, βουλεύεται δὲ ὅσα ἐφ' ἡμῖν ἐστι

τῶν δυνατῶν καὶ εἶναι καὶ μὴ τῶν πρὸς τὸ τέλος, δῆλον ὅτι ἡ

προαίρεσις μέν ἐστιν ὄρεξις τῶν ἐφ' αὑτῷ βουλευτική. ἅπαντες

γὰρ βουλευόμεθα ἃ καὶ προαιρούμεθα, οὐ μέντοι γε ἃ βουλευόμεθα,

πάντα προαιρούμεθα. λέγω δὲ βουλευτικήν, ἧς ἀρχὴ

20 καὶ αἰτία βούλευσίς ἐστι, καὶ ὀρέγεται διὰ τὸ βουλεύσασθαι.

διὸ οὔτε ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις ζῴοις ἐστὶν ἡ προαίρεσις, οὔτε ἐν πάσῃ

ἡλικίᾳ, οὔτε πάντως ἔχοντος ἀνθρώπου. οὐδὲ γὰρ τὸ βουλεύσασθαι,

οὐδ' ὑπόληψις τοῦ διὰ τί· ἀλλὰ δοξάσαι μὲν εἰ

ποιητέον ἢ μὴ ποιητέον οὐθὲν κωλύει πολλοῖς ὑπάρχειν, τὸ

25 δὲ διὰ λογισμοῦ οὐκέτι. ἔστι γὰρ βουλευτικὸν τῆς ψυχῆς τὸ

θεωρητικὸν αἰτίας τινός. ἡ γὰρ οὗ ἕνεκα μία τῶν αἰτιῶν ἐστίν·

τὸ μὲν γὰρ διὰ τί αἰτία· οὗ δ' ἕνεκά ἐστιν ἢ γίγνεταί τι,

τοῦτ' αἴτιόν φαμεν εἶναι, οἷον τοῦ βαδίζειν ἡ κομιδὴ τῶν

χρημάτων, εἰ τούτου ἕνεκα βαδίζει. διὸ οἷς μηθεὶς κεῖται

30 σκοπός, οὐ βουλευτικοί. ὥστ' ἐπεὶ τὸ μὲν ἐφ' αὑτῷ ὂν ἢ

πράττειν ἢ μὴ πράττειν, ἐάν τις πράττῃ ἢ ἀπρακτῇ δι'

αὑτὸν καὶ μὴ δι' ἄγνοιαν, ἑκὼν πράττει ἢ ἀπρακτεῖ, πολλὰ

δὲ τῶν τοιούτων πράττομεν οὐ βουλευσάμενοι οὐδὲ προνοήσαντες,

ἀνάγκη τὸ μὲν προαιρετὸν ἅπαν ἑκούσιον εἶναι, τὸ δ' ἑκούσιον

35 μὴ προαιρετόν, καὶ τὰ μὲν κατὰ προαίρεσιν πάντα ἑκούσια

εἶναι, τὰ δ' ἀκούσια μὴ πάντα κατὰ προαίρεσιν. ἅμα δ'

ἐκ τούτων φανερὸν καὶ ὅτι καλῶς διορίζονται οἳ τῶν παθημάτων

τὰ μὲν ἑκούσια τὰ δ' ἀκούσια τὰ δ' ἐκ προνοίας νομοθετοῦσιν·

1But we must ask—how compounded out of these? The very name is some indication. For choice is not simply taking but taking one thing before another; and this is impossible without consideration and deliberation; therefore choice arises out of deliberate opinion. Now about the end no 5one deliberates (this being fixed for all), but about that which tends to it—whether this or that tends to it, and—supposing this or that resolved on—how it is to be brought about. All consider this till they have brought the commencement of the production to a point in their own power. If then, no one deliberately chooses without some preparation, 10without some consideration whether it is better or worse to do so and so, and if one considers all that are in one's power of the means to the end which are capable of existing or not existing, it is clear that choice is a considered desire for something in one's own power; for we all consider what we choose, but we do not choose all that we consider. 15I call it considered when consideration is the source and cause of the desire, and the man desires because of the consideration. Therefore in the other animals choice does not exist, nor in man at every age or in every condition; for there is not consideration or judgement of the ground of an act; but it is quite possible that many animals have an 20opinion whether a thing is to be done or not; only thinking with consideration is impossible to them. For the considering part of the soul is that which observes a cause of some sort; and the object of an action is one of the causes; for we call cause that owing to which a thing comes about; but the purpose of a thing's existence or production is what 25we specially call its cause, e.g. of walking, the fetching of things, if this is the purpose for which one walks. Therefore, those who have no aim fixed have no inclination to deliberate. So that since, if a man of himself and not through ignorance does or abstains from that which is in his power to do or abstain from, he acts or abstains voluntarily, 30but we do many such things without deliberation or premeditation, it follows that all that has been deliberately chosen is voluntary, but not all the volun tary is deliberately chosen, and that all that is according to choice is voluntary, but not all that is voluntary is according to choice. And at the same time it is clear from this that those 35legislators define well who enact that some states of feeling are to be considered voluntary, some involuntary, and some premeditated; for if they are not thoroughly accurate, at least they approximate to the truth.

1227a

1 εἰ γὰρ καὶ μὴ διακριβοῦσιν, ἀλλ' ἅπτονταί γέ

πῃ τῆς ἀληθείας. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων ἐροῦμεν ἐν τῇ περὶ

τῶν δικαίων ἐπισκέψει· ἡ δὲ προαίρεσις ὅτι οὔτε ἁπλῶς βούλησις

οὔτε δόξα ἐστί, δῆλον, ἀλλὰ δόξα τε καὶ ὄρεξις, ὅταν

5 ἐκ τοῦ βουλεύσασθαι συμπερανθῶσιν.

ἐπεὶ δὲ βουλεύεται ἀεὶ ὁ βουλευόμενος ἕνεκα τινός, καὶ ἐστὶ

σκοπός τις ἀεὶ τῷ βουλευομένῳ πρὸς ὃν σκοπεῖ τὸ συμφέρον,

περὶ μὲν τοῦ τέλους οὐθεὶς βουλεύεται, ἀλλὰ τοῦτ' ἐστιν ἀρχὴ καὶ

ὑπόθεσις, ὥσπερ ἐν ταῖς θεωρητικαῖς ἐπιστήμαις ὑποθέσεις (εἴρηται

10 δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἐν ἀρχῇ βραχέως, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἀναλυτικοῖς

δι' ἀκριβείας), περὶ δὲ τῶν πρὸς τὸ τέλος φερόντων

ἡ σκέψις καὶ μετὰ τέχνης καὶ ἄνευ τέχνης πᾶσιν ἐστίν, οἷον

εἰ πολεμῶσιν ἢ μὴ πολεμῶσιν τοῦτο βουλευομένοις. ἐκ προτέρου

δὲ μᾶλλον ἔσται τὸ δι' ὅ, τοῦτ' ἐστι τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα, οἷον πλοῦτος

15 ἢ ἡδονὴ ἤ τι ἄλλο τοιοῦτον ὃ τυγχάνει οὗ ἕνεκα. βουλεύεται

γὰρ ὁ βουλευόμενος, εἰ ἀπὸ τοῦ τέλους ἔσκεπται, <ἢ> ὅ τι ἐκεῖ

συντείνει ὅπως εἰς αὑτὸν ἀγάγῃ, ἢ αὐτὸς δύναται πρὸς τὸ

τέλος. τὸ δὲ τέλος ἐστὶ φύσει μὲν ἀεὶ ἀγαθόν, καὶ περὶ οὗ

κατὰ μέρος βουλεύονται, οἷον ἰατρὸς βουλεύσαιτο ἂν εἰ δῴη

20 φάρμακον, καὶ στρατηγὸς ποῦ στρατοπεδεύσηται, οἷς ἀγαθὸν

τὸ τέλος τὸ ἁπλῶς ἄριστον ἐστίν· παρὰ φύσιν δὲ καὶ διαστροφὴν

οὐ τὸ ἀγαθόν, ἀλλὰ τὸ φαινόμενον ἀγαθόν. αἴτιον

δ' ὅτι τῶν ὄντων τὰ μὲν οὐκ ἔστιν ἐπ' ἄλλῳ χρήσασθαι ἢ

πρὸς ἃ πέφυκεν, οἷον ὄψει· οὐ γὰρ οἷόν τ' ἰδεῖν οὗ μή ἐστιν

25 ὄψις, οὐδ' ἀκοῦσαι οὗ μή ἐστιν ἀκοή· ἀλλ' ἀπὸ ἐπιστήμης

ποιῆσαι καὶ οὗ μή ἐστιν ἡ ἐπιστήμη. οὐ γὰρ ὁμοίως τῆς ὑγιείας

ἡ αὐτὴ ἐπιστήμη καὶ νόσου, ἀλλὰ τῆς μὲν κατὰ φύσιν τῆς

δὲ παρὰ φύσιν. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἡ βούλησις φύσει μὲν τοῦ

ἀγαθοῦ ἐστί, παρὰ φύσιν δὲ καὶ τοῦ κακοῦ, καὶ βούλεται φύσει

30 μὲν τὸ ἀγαθόν, παρὰ φύσιν δὲ καὶ διαστροφὴν καὶ τὸ κακόν.

ἀλλὰ μὴν ἑκάστου γε φθορὰ καὶ διαστροφὴ οὐκ εἰς τὸ

τυχόν, ἀλλ' εἰς τὰ ἐναντία καὶ τὰ μεταξύ. οὐ γὰρ ἔστιν

ἐκβῆναι ἐκ τούτων, ἐπεὶ καὶ ἡ ἀπάτη οὐκ εἰς τὰ τυχόντα

γίνεται, ἀλλ' εἰς τὰ ἐναντία ὅσοις ἐστὶν ἐναντία, καὶ εἰς

35 ταῦτα τῶν ἐναντίων ἃ κατὰ τὴν ἐπιστήμην ἐναντία ἐστίν.

ἀνάγκη ἄρα καὶ τὴν ἀπάτην καὶ τὴν προαίρεσιν ἀπὸ τοῦ

μέσου ἐπὶ τὰ ἐναντία γίνεσθαι (ἐναντία δὲ τῷ μέσῳ [καὶ] τὸ

πλέον καὶ τὸ ἔλαττον). —αἴτιον δὲ τὸ ἡδὺ καὶ τὸ λυπηρόν·

οὕτω γὰρ ἔχει ὥστε τῇ ψυχῇ φαίνεσθαι τὸ μὲν ἡδὺ ἀγαθὸν

40 καὶ τὸ ἥδιον ἄμεινον, καὶ τὸ λυπηρὸν κακὸν καὶ τὸ λυπηρότερον

1But about this we will speak in our investigation of justice; meanwhile, it is clear that deliberate choice is not simply wish or simply opinion, but opinion and desire together when following as a conclusion from deliberation. But since in deliberating one always deliberates for 5the sake of some end, and he who deliberates has always an aim by reference to which he judges what is expedient, no one deliberates about the end; this is the starting-point and assumption, like the assumptions in theoretical science (we have spoken about this shortly in the beginning of this work and minutely in the Analytics). Every one's inquiry, 10whether made with or without art, is about what tends to the end, e.g. whether they shall go to war or not, when this is what they are deliberating about. But the cause or object will come first, e.g. wealth, pleasure, or anything else of the sort that happens to be our object. For the man deliberating deliberates if he has considered, from the 15point of view of the end, what conduces to bringing the end within his own action, or what he at present can do towards the object. But the object or end is always something good by nature, and men deliberate about its partial constituents, e.g. the doctor whether he is to give a drug, or the general where he is to pitch his camp. To them the absolutely 20best end is good. But contrary to nature and by perversion not the good but the apparent good is the end. And the reason is that some things cannot be used for anything but what their nature determines, e.g. sight; for one can see nothing but what is visible, nor hear anything but what is audible. But science enables us to do what does not belong 25to that science; for the same science is not similarly related to health and disease, but naturally to the former, contrary to nature to the latter. And similarly wish is of the good naturally, but of the bad contrary to nature, and by nature one wishes the good, but contrary to nature and through perversion the bad as well. But further, the 30corruption and perversion of a thing does not tend to anything at random but to the contrary or the intermediate between it and the contrary. For out of this province one cannot go, since error leads not to anything at random but to the contrary of truth where there is a contrary, and to that contrary which is according to the appropriate science 35contrary. Therefore, the error and the resulting choice must deviate from the mean towards the opposite—and the opposite of the mean is excess or defect. And the cause is pleasantness or painfulness; for we are so constituted that the pleasant appears good to the soul and the more pleasant better, while the painful appears bad and the more painful worse.

1227b

1 χεῖρον. ὥστε καὶ ἐκ τούτων δῆλον ὅτι περὶ ἡδονὰς

καὶ λύπας ἡ ἀρετὴ καὶ ἡ κακία. περὶ μὲν γὰρ τὰ προαιρετὰ

τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι, ἡ δὲ προαίρεσις περὶ τὸ ἀγαθὸν καὶ

κακὸν καὶ τὰ φαινόμενα, τοιαῦτα δὲ φύσει ἡδονὴ καὶ λύπη.

5 ἀνάγκη τοίνυν, ἐπειδὴ ἡ ἀρετὴ μὲν ἡ ἠθικὴ αὐτή τε μεσότης

τίς ἐστι καὶ περὶ ἡδονὰς καὶ λύπας πᾶσα, ἡ δὲ κακία

ἐν ὑπερβολῇ καὶ ἐλλείψει καὶ περὶ ταὐτὰ τῇ ἀρετῇ,

τὴν ἀρετὴν εἶναι τὴν ἠθικὴν ἕξιν προαιρετικὴν μεσότητος τῆς

πρὸς ἡμᾶς ἐν ἡδέσι καὶ λυπηροῖς, καθ' ὅσα ποῖός τις λέγεται

10 τὸ ἦθος, ἢ χαίρων ἢ λυπούμενος· ὁ γὰρ φιλόγλυκυς

ἢ φιλόπικρος οὐ λέγεται ποῖός τις τὸ ἦθος.

1So that from this also it is clear that virtue and vice have to do with pleasures and pains; for they have to do with objects of choice, and choice has to do with the good and bad or what seems such, and pleasure and pain naturally seem such. It follows then, since moral virtue is itself 5a mean and wholly concerned with pleasures and pains, and vice lies in excess or defect and is concerned with the same matters as virtue, that moral virtue is a habit tending to choose the mean in relation to us in things pleasant and painful, in regard to which, according as one is pleased or pained, men are said to have a definite sort of character; 10for one is not said to have a special sort of character merely for liking what is sweet or what is bitter.

Book 2,Chapter 11 (1227b12–1228a19)

τούτων δὲ διωρισμένων, λέγωμεν πότερον ἡ ἀρετὴ ἀναμάρτητον

ποιεῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν καὶ τὸ τέλος ὀρθόν, οὕτως

ὥστε οὗ ἕνεκα δεῖ προαιρεῖσθαι, ἢ ὥσπερ δοκεῖ τισί, τὸν

15 λόγον. ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο ἐγκράτεια· αὕτη γὰρ οὐ διαφθείρει τὸν

λόγον. ἔστι δ' ἀρετὴ καὶ ἐγκράτεια ἕτερον. λεκτέον δ' ὕστερον

περὶ αὐτῶν, ἐπεὶ ὅσοις γε δοκεῖ τὸν λόγον ὀρθὸν παρέχειν

ἡ ἀρετή, τοῦτο αἴτιον. ἡ μὲν <γὰρ> ἐγκράτεια τοιοῦτον, τῶν

ἐπαινετῶν δ' ἡ ἐγκράτεια. λέγομεν δὲ προαπορήσαντες. ἔστι

20 γὰρ τὸν μὲν σκοπὸν ὀρθὸν εἶναι, ἐν δὲ τοῖς πρὸς τὸν σκοπὸν

διαμαρτάνειν· ἔστι δὲ τὸν μὲν σκοπὸν ἡμαρτῆσθαι, τὰ δὲ

πρὸς ἐκεῖνον περαίνοντα ὀρθῶς ἔχειν, καὶ μηδέτερον. πότερον

δ' ἡ ἀρετὴ ποιεῖ τὸν σκοπὸν ἢ τὰ πρὸς τὸν σκοπόν; τιθέμεθα

δὴ ὅτι τὸν σκοπόν, διότι τούτου οὐκ ἔστι συλλογισμὸς οὐδὲ

25 λόγος. ἀλλὰ δὴ ὥσπερ ἀρχὴ τοῦτο ὑποκείσθω. οὔτε γὰρ ἰατρὸς

σκοπεῖ εἰ δεῖ ὑγιαίνειν ἢ μή, ἀλλ' εἰ περιπατεῖν ἢ μή, οὔτε

ὁ γυμναστικὸς εἰ δεῖ εὖ ἔχειν ἢ μή, ἀλλ' εἰ παλαῖσαι ἢ

μή. ὁμοίως δ' οὐδ' ἄλλη οὐδεμία περὶ τοῦ τέλους· ὥσπερ γὰρ

ταῖς θεωρητικαῖς αἱ ὑποθέσεις ἀρχαί, οὕτω καὶ ταῖς ποιητικαῖς

30 τὸ τέλος ἀρχὴ καὶ ὑπόθεσις. ἐπειδὴ δεῖ τόδε ὑγιαίνειν,

ἀνάγκη τοδὶ ὑπάρξαι, εἰ ἔσται ἐκεῖνο, ὥσπερ ἐκεῖ, εἰ ἔστι

τὸ τρίγωνον δύο ὀρθαί, ἀνάγκη τοδὶ εἶναι. τῆς μὲν οὖν νοήσεως

ἀρχὴ τὸ τέλος, τῆς δὲ πράξεως ἡ τῆς νοήσεως τελευτή.

εἰ οὖν πάσης ὀρθότητος ἢ ὁ λόγος ἢ ἡ ἀρετὴ αἰτία, εἰ μὴ

35 ὁ λόγος, διὰ τὴν ἀρετὴν ἂν ὀρθὸν εἴη τὸ τέλος, ἀλλ' οὐ τὰ

πρὸς τὸ τέλος. τέλος δ' ἐστὶ τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα. ἔστι γὰρ πᾶσα

προαίρεσις τινὸς καὶ ἕνεκα τινός. οὗ μὲν οὖν ἕνεκα τὸ μέσον

ἐστίν, οὗ αἰτία ἡ ἀρετὴ τῷ προαιρεῖσθαι οὗ ἕνεκα. ἔστι μέντοι

ἡ προαίρεσις οὐ τούτου, ἀλλὰ τῶν τούτου ἕνεκα. τὸ μὲν οὖν τυγχάνειν

40 τούτων ἄλλης δυνάμεως, ὅσα ἕνεκα τοῦ τέλους δεῖ

These distinctions having been made, let us say whether virtue makes the choice correct and the end right so that a man chooses for the right end, or whether (as some say) it makes the reason so. But what does this is continence, for this preserves 15the reason. But virtue and continence differ. We must speak later about them, since those who think that virtue makes the reason right, do so for this cause—namely, that continence is of this nature and continence is one of the things we praise. Now that we have discussed preliminary questions let us state our view. It is possible for the aim to be right, 20but for a man to go wrong in the means to that aim; and again the aim may be mistaken, while the means leading to it are right; or both may be mistaken. Does then virtue make the aim, or the means to that aim? We say the aim, because this is not attained by inference or reasoning. Let us assume this as starting-point. For the doctor does not ask whether one 25ought to be in health or not, but whether one ought to walk or not; nor does the trainer ask whether one ought to be in good condition or not, but whether one should wrestle or not. And similarly no art asks questions about the end; for as in theoretical sciences the assumptions are our starting-points, so in the productive the end is starting-point and 30assumed. E.g. we reason that since this body is to be made healthy, therefore so and so must be found in it if health is to be had—just as in geometry we argue, if the angles of the triangle are equal to two right angles, then so and so must be the case. The end aimed at is, then, the starting-point of our thought, the end of our thought the starting-point 35of action. If, then, of all correctness either reason or virtue is the cause, if reason is not the cause, then the end (but not the means) must owe its rightness to virtue. But the end is the object of the action; for all choice is of some thing and for the sake of some object. The object, then, is the mean, and virtue is the cause of this by choosing it.

1228a

1 πράττειν· τοῦ δὲ τὸ τέλος ὀρθὸν εἶναι τῆς προαιρέσεως [οὗ] ἡ

ἀρετὴ αἰτία. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἐκ τῆς προαιρέσεως κρίνομεν

ποῖός τις· τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶ τὸ τίνος ἕνεκα πράττει, ἀλλ' οὐ τί

πράττει. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἡ κακία τῶν ἐναντίων ἕνεκα ποιεῖ

5 τὴν προαίρεσιν. εἰ δή τις, ἐφ' αὑτῷ ὂν πράττειν μὲν τὰ

καλὰ ἀπρακτεῖν δὲ τὰ αἰσχρά, τοὐναντίον ποιεῖ, δῆλον ὅτι

οὐ σπουδαῖός ἐστιν οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος. ὥστ' ἀνάγκη τήν τε

κακίαν ἑκούσιον εἶναι καὶ τὴν ἀρετήν· οὐδεμία γὰρ ἀνάγκη τὰ

μοχθηρὰ πράττειν. διὰ ταῦτα καὶ ψεκτὸν ἡ κακία καὶ ἡ

10 ἀρετὴ ἐπαινετόν· τὰ γὰρ ἀκούσια αἰσχρὰ καὶ κακὰ οὐ ψέγεται

οὐδὲ τὰ ἀγαθὰ ἐπαινεῖται, ἀλλὰ τὰ ἑκούσια. ἔτι πάντας

ἐπαινοῦμεν καὶ ψέγομεν εἰς τὴν προαίρεσιν βλέποντες

μᾶλλον ἢ εἰς τὰ ἔργα· καίτοι αἱρετώτερον ἡ ἐνέργεια τῆς

ἀρετῆς, ὅτι πράττουσι μὲν φαῦλα καὶ ἀναγκαζόμενοι,

15 προαιρεῖται δ' οὐδείς. ἔτι διὰ τὸ μὴ ῥᾴδιον εἶναι ἰδεῖν τὴν

προαίρεσιν ὁποία τις, διὰ ταῦτα ἐκ τῶν ἔργων ἀναγκαζόμεθα

κρίνειν ποῖός τις. αἱρετώτερον μὲν οὖν ἡ ἐνέργεια, ἐπαινετώτερον

δ' ἡ προαίρεσις. ἔκ τε τῶν κειμένων οὖν συμβαίνει

ταῦτα, καὶ ἔτι ὁμολογεῖται τοῖς φαινομένοις.

1Still choice is not of this but of the things done for the sake of this. To hit on these things I mean what ought to be done for the sake of the object—belongs to another faculty; but of the rightness of the end of the choice the cause is virtue. And therefore it is from a man's choice that we judge his 5character—that is from the object for the sake of which he acts, not from the act itself. Similarly, vice makes the choice to be for the sake of the opposite object. If, then, a man, having it in his power to do the honourable and abstain from the base, does the opposite, it is clear that this man is not good. Hence, it follows that both vice and virtue are voluntary; for there is no 10necessity to do what is wicked. Therefore vice is blamable and virtue praiseworthy. For the involuntary if base or bad is not blamable, if good is not praiseworthy, but only the voluntary. Further, we praise and blame all men with regard to their choice rather than their acts (though activity is more desirable than virtue), because men may do bad acts under compulsion, but no one chooses 15them under compulsion. Further, it is only because it is not easy to see the nature of a man's choice that we are forced to judge of his character by his acts. The activity then is more desirable, but the choice more praiseworthy. And this both follows from our assumptions and is in agreement with observation.