Name: History of Animals, Book IV
Author: Aristotle

Louis (Budé, 1964–69) · Thompson (1910)

Thompson (1910)

Greek line numbers are exact. The translations carry no Bekker numbers of their own, so those beside the English are aligned to the Greek: upright = fixed (anchored to this point in the text), italic grey = approximate (interpolated estimate).

Book 4,Chapter 1 (523a31–525a29)

523a

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἐναίμων ζῴων, ὅσα τε κοινὰ ἔχουσι

μέρη καὶ ὅσα ἴδια ἕκαστον γένος, καὶ τῶν ἀνομοιομερῶν

καὶ τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν, καὶ ὅσα ἐκτὸς καὶ ὅσα ἐντός, εἴρηται

We have now treated, in regard to blooded animals of the parts they have in common and of the parts peculiar to this genus or that, and of the parts both composite and simple, whether without or within.

523b

1 πρότερον· περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀναίμων νῦν λεκτέον. Ἔστι δὲ

γένη ταῦτα πλείω, ἓν μὲν τὸ τῶν καλουμένων μαλακίων· ταῦτα

δ' ἐστὶν ὅσα ἄναιμα ὄντα ἐκτὸς ἔχει τὸ σαρκῶδες, ἐντὸς δ'

εἴ τι ἔχει στερεόν, καθάπερ καὶ τὰ ἔναιμα τῶν ζῴων, οἷον τὸ

5 τῶν σηπιῶν γένος. Ἓν δὲ τὸ τῶν μαλακοστράκων· ταῦτα δ'

ἐστὶν ὅσων ἐκτὸς τὸ στερεόν, ἐντὸς δὲ τὸ μαλακὸν καὶ σαρκῶδες·

τὸ δὲ σκληρὸν αὐτῶν ἐστιν οὐ θραυστὸν ἀλλὰ θλαστόν,

οἷόν ἐστι τό τε τῶν καράβων γένος καὶ τὸ τῶν καρκίνων. Ἔτι

δὲ τὰ ὀστρακόδερμα· τοιαῦτα δ' ἐστὶν ὧν ἐντὸς μὲν τὸ σαρκῶδες,

10 ἐκτὸς δὲ τὸ στερεόν, θραυστὸν ὂν καὶ κατακτόν, ἀλλ'

οὐ θλαστόν· τοιοῦτον δὲ τὸ τῶν κοχλιῶν γένος καὶ τὸ τῶν

ὀστρέων ἐστίν. Τέταρτον δὲ τὸ τῶν ἐντόμων, ὃ πολλὰ καὶ ἀνόμοια

περιείληφεν εἴδη ζῴων. Ἔστι δ' ἔντομα ὅσα κατὰ τοὔνομά

ἐστιν ἐντομὰς ἔχοντα ἢ ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις ἢ ἐν τοῖς πρανέσιν

15 ἢ ἐν ἀμφοῖν, καὶ οὔτε ὀστῶδες ἔχει ἓν κεχωρισμένον οὔτε

σαρκῶδες, ἀλλὰ μέσον ἀμφοῖν· τὸ σῶμα γὰρ ὁμοίως καὶ

ἔσω καὶ ἔξω σκληρόν ἐστιν αὐτῶν. Ἔστι δ' ἔντομα καὶ ἄπτερα,

οἷον ἴουλος καὶ σκολόπενδρα, καὶ πτερωτά, οἷον μέλιττα καὶ

μηλολόνθη καὶ σφήξ· καὶ ταὐτὸ δὲ γένος αὐτῶν ἐστι καὶ

20 πτερωτὸν καὶ ἄπτερον, οἷον μύρμηκές εἰσι καὶ πτερωτοὶ

καὶ ἄπτεροι, καὶ αἱ καλούμεναι πυγολαμπίδες. Τῶν μὲν οὖν μαλακίων καλουμένων

τὰ μὲν ἔξω μόρια τάδ' ἐστίν, ἓν μὲν οἱ ὀνομαζόμενοι πόδες,

δεύτερον δὲ τούτων ἐχομένη ἡ κεφαλή, τρίτον δὲ τὸ κύτος,

ὃ περιέχει τἀντός, καὶ καλοῦσιν αὐτὸ κεφαλήν τινες, οὐκ

25 ὀρθῶς καλοῦντες· ἔτι δὲ πτερύγια κύκλῳ περὶ τὸ κύτος.

Συμβαίνει δ' ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς μαλακίοις μεταξὺ τῶν ποδῶν

καὶ τῆς γαστρὸς εἶναι τὴν κεφαλήν. Πόδας μὲν οὖν ὀκτὼ

πάντ' ἔχει, καὶ τούτους δικοτύλους πάντα, πλὴν ἑνὸς γένους

πολυπόδων. Ἰδίᾳ δ' ἔχουσιν αἵ τε σηπίαι καὶ αἱ τευθίδες

30 καὶ οἱ τεῦθοι δύο προβοσκίδας μακράς, ἐπ' ἄκρων τραχύτητα

ἐχούσας δικότυλον, αἷς προσάγονταί τε καὶ λαμβάνουσιν

εἰς τὸ στόμα τὴν τροφήν, καὶ ὅταν χειμὼν ᾖ, βαλλόμεναι

πρός τινα πέτραν ὥσπερ ἀγκύρας ἀποσαλεύουσιν.

1We now proceed to treat of animals devoid of blood. These animals are divided into several genera.
One genus consists of so-called 'molluscs'; and by the term 'mollusc' we mean an animal that, being devoid of blood, has its flesh-like substance outside, and any hard structure it may happen to have, inside-in this respect 5resembling the red-blooded animals, such as the genus of the cuttle-fish.
Another genus is that of the malacostraca. These are animals that have their hard structure outside, and their soft or fleshlike substance inside, and the hard substance belonging to them has to be crushed rather than shattered; and to this genus belongs the crawfish and the crab.
A third genus is that of the ostracoderms 10or 'testaceans'. These are animals that have their hard substance outside and their flesh-like substance within, and their hard substance can be shattered but not crushed; and to this genus belong the snail and the oyster.
The fourth genus is that of insects; and this genus comprehends numerous and dissimilar species. Insects are creatures that, as the name implies, have nicks either on the 15belly or on the back, or on both belly and back, and have no one part distinctly osseous and no one part distinctly fleshy, but are throughout a something intermediate between bone and flesh; that is to say, their body is hard all through, inside and outside. Some insects are wingless, such as the iulus and the centipede; some are winged, as the bee, the cockchafer, and the wasp; and the same kind is 20in some cases both winged and wingless, as the ant and the glow-worm.
In molluscs the external parts are as follows: in the first place, the so-called feet; secondly, and attached to these, the head; thirdly, the mantle-sac, containing the internal parts, and incorrectly designated by some writers the head; and, fourthly, fins round about the sac. (See diagram.) In all molluscs the head is found 25to be between the feet and the belly. All molluscs are furnished with eight feet, and in all cases these feet are severally furnished with a double row of suckers, with the exception of one single species of poulpe or octopus. The sepia, the small calamary and the large calamary have an exceptional organ in a pair of long arms or tentacles, having at their extremities a portion rendered rough by 30the presence of two rows of suckers; and with these arms or tentacles they apprehend their food and draw it into their mouths, and in stormy weather they cling by them to a rock and sway about in the rough water like ships lying at anchor.

524a

1 Τοῖς δ' ὥσπερ πτερυγίοις, οἷς ἔχουσι περὶ τὸ κύτος,

νέουσιν. Ἐπὶ δὲ τῶν ποδῶν αἱ κοτυληδόνες ἅπασιν εἰσίν. Ὁ μὲν οὖν

πολύπους καὶ ὡς ποσὶ καὶ ὡς χερσὶ χρῆται ταῖς πλεκτάναις.

Προσάγεται δὲ ταῖς δυσὶ ταῖς ὑπὲρ τοῦ στόματος·

5 τῇ δ' ἐσχάτῃ τῶν πλεκτανῶν, ἥ ἐστιν ὀξυτάτη τε καὶ μόνη

παράλευκος αὐτῶν καὶ ἐξ ἄκρου δικρόα (ἔστι δ' αὕτη ἐπὶ

τῇ ῥάχει· καλεῖται δὲ ῥάχις τὸ λεῖον, οὗ πρόσω αἱ κοτυληδόνες

εἰσίν), ταύτῃ δὴ τῇ πλεκτάνῃ χρῆται ἐν ταῖς ὀχείαις.

Πρὸ τοῦ κύτους δ' ὑπὲρ τῶν πλεκτανῶν ἔχουσι κοῖλον

10 αὐλόν, ᾧ τὴν θάλατταν ἀφιᾶσι δεξάμενοι τῷ κύτει, ὅταν

τι τῷ στόματι λαμβάνωσιν. Μεταβάλλει δὲ τοῦτον ὁτὲ μὲν

εἰς τὰ δεξιὰ ὁτὲ δ' εἰς τὰ ἀριστερά· ἀφίησι δὲ καὶ τὸν

θολὸν ταύτῃ. Νεῖ δὲ πλάγιος, ἐπὶ τὴν καλουμένην κεφαλήν,

ἐκτείνων τοὺς πόδας· οὕτω δὲ νέοντι συμβαίνει προορᾶν μὲν

15 εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν (ἐπάνω γάρ εἰσιν οἱ ὀφθαλμοί), τὸ δὲ στόμα

ἔχει ὄπισθεν. Τὴν δὲ κεφαλήν, ἕως ἂν ζῇ, σκληρὰν

ἔχει καθάπερ ἐμπεφυσημένην. Ἅπτεται δὲ καὶ κατέχει

ταῖς πλεκτάναις ὑπτίαις, καὶ ὁ μεταξὺ τῶν ποδῶν ὑμὴν

διατέταται πᾶς· ἐὰν δ' εἰς τὴν ἄμμον ἐμπέσῃ, οὐκέτι δύναται

20 κατέχειν. Ἔχουσι δὲ διαφορὰν οἵ τε πολύποδες καὶ

τὰ εἰρημένα τῶν μαλακίων· τῶν μὲν γὰρ πολυπόδων τὸ

μὲν κύτος μικρόν, οἱ δὲ πόδες μακροί εἰσι, τῶν δὲ τὸ μὲν

κύτος μέγα, οἱ δὲ πόδες βραχεῖς, ὥστε μὴ πορεύεσθαι ἐπ'

αὐτοῖς. Αὐτῶν δὲ πρὸς αὑτά, τὸ μὲν μακρότερόν ἐστιν ἡ

25 τευθίς, ἡ δὲ σηπία πλατύτερον. Τῶν δὲ τευθίδων οἱ τεῦθοι

καλούμενοι ἐπὶ πολὺ μείζους· γίνονται γὰρ καὶ πέντε πήχεων

τὸ μέγεθος. Γίνονται δὲ καὶ σηπίαι ἔνιαι διπήχεις,

καὶ πολυπόδων πλεκτάναι τηλικαῦται καὶ μείζους ἔτι τὸ

μέγεθος. Ἔστι δὲ τὸ γένος ὀλίγον τῶν τεύθων. Διαφέρει δὲ

30 τὸ σχῆμα τῶν τευθίδων ὁ τεῦθος· πλατύτερον γάρ ἐστι

τὸ ὀξὺ τῶν τεύθων, ἔτι δὲ τὸ κύκλῳ πτερύγιον περὶ ἅπαν

ἐστὶ τὸ κύτος· τῇ δὲ τευθίδι ἐλλείπει. Ἔστι δὲ πελάγιον, ὥςπερ

καὶ ἡ τευθίς. Μετὰ δὲ τοὺς πόδας ἡ κεφαλή ἐστιν ἁπάντων

1They swim by the aid of the fins that they have about the sac. In all cases their feet are furnished with suckers.
The octopus, by the way, uses his feelers either as feet or hands; with the two which stand over his mouth he draws in food, and the last of his feelers he employs in the act of copulation; 5and this last one, by the way, is extremely sharp, is exceptional as being of a whitish colour, and at its extremity is bifurcate; that is to say, it has an additional something on the rachis, and by rachis is meant the smooth surface or edge of the arm on the far side from the suckers. (See diagram.)
In front of the sac and over the feelers they have a hollow tube, by means 10of which they discharge any sea-water that they may have taken into the sac of the body in the act of receiving food by the mouth. They can shift the tube from side to side, and by means of it they discharge the black liquid peculiar to the animal.
Stretching out its feet, it swims obliquely in the direction of the so-called head, and by this mode of swimming it can see in front, 15for its eyes are at the top, and in this attitude it has its mouth at the rear. The 'head', while the creature is alive, is hard, and looks as though it were inflated. It apprehends and retains objects by means of the under-surface of its arms, and the membrane in between its feet is kept at full tension; if the animal get on to the sand it can no longer retain its hold.
There 20is a difference between the octopus and the other molluscs above mentioned: the body of the octopus is small, and his feet are long, whereas in the others the body is large and the feet short; so short, in fact, that they cannot walk on them. Compared with one another, the teuthis, or calamary, is long-shaped, and the sepia flat-shaped; and of the calamaries the so-called 25teuthus is much bigger than the teuthis; for teuthi have been found as much as five ells long. Some sepiae attain a length of two ells, and the feelers of the octopus are sometimes as long, or even longer. The species teuthus is not a numerous one; the teuthus differs from the teuthis in shape; that is, the sharp extremity of the teuthus is broader than that of the other, and, 30further, the encircling fin goes all round the trunk, whereas it is in part lacking in the teuthis; both animals are pelagic.
In all cases the head comes after the feet, in the middle of the feet that are called arms or feelers.

524b

1 ἐν μέσῳ τῶν ποδῶν τῶν καλουμένων πλεκτανῶν.

Ταύτης δὲ τὸ μέν ἐστι στόμα, ἐν ᾧ ἔνεισι δύο ὀδόντες· ὑπὲρ δὲ

τούτων ὀφθαλμοὶ μεγάλοι δύο, ὧν τὸ μεταξὺ μικρὸς χόνδρος

ἔχων ἐγκέφαλον μικρόν. Ἐν δὲ τῷ στόματί ἐστι μικρὸν σαρκῶδες·

5 γλῶτταν δ' οὐκ ἔχει αὐτῶν οὐδέν, ἀλλὰ τούτῳ χρῆται

ἀντὶ γλώττης. Μετὰ δὲ τοῦτο ἔξωθεν μὲν ἔστιν ἰδεῖν τὸ φαινόμενον

κύτος. Ἔστι δ' αὐτοῦ ἡ σὰρξ σχιστή, οὐκ εἰς εὐθὺ μέντοι ἀλλὰ

κύκλῳ· δέρμα δ' ἔχουσι πάντα τὰ μαλάκια περὶ ταύτην.

Μετὰ δὲ τὸ στόμα ἔχουσιν οἰσοφάγον μακρὸν καὶ στενόν, ἐχόμενον

10 δὲ τούτου πρόλοβον μέγαν καὶ περιφερῆ ὀρνιθώδη. Τούτου

δ' ἔχεται ἡ κοιλία οἷον ἤνυστρον· τὸ δὲ σχῆμα ὅμοιον τῇ ἐν

τοῖς κήρυξιν ἑλίκῃ. Ἀπὸ δὲ ταύτης ἄνω πάλιν φέρει πρὸς

τὸ στόμα ἔντερον λεπτόν· παχύτερον δ' ἐστὶ τοῦ στομάχου τὸ

ἔντερον. Σπλάγχνον δ' οὐδὲν ἔχει τῶν μαλακίων, ἀλλ' ἣν καλοῦσι

15 μύτιν, καὶ ἐπὶ ταύτῃ θολόν. Τοῦτον δὲ πλεῖστον αὐτῶν

καὶ μέγιστον ἡ σηπία ἔχει· ἀφίησι μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα, ὅταν

φοβηθῇ, μάλιστα δ' ἡ σηπία. Ἡ μὲν οὖν μύτις κεῖται ὑπὸ

τὸ στόμα, καὶ διὰ ταύτης τείνει ὁ στόμαχος· ᾗ δὲ τὸ ἔντερον

ἀνατείνει, κάτωθεν ὁ θολός, καὶ τῷ αὐτῷ ὑμένι περιεχόμενον

20 ἔχει τὸν πόρον τῷ ἐντέρῳ, καὶ ἀφίησι κατὰ ταὐτὸν τόν τε

θολὸν καὶ τὸ περίττωμα· ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ τριχώδη ἄττα ἐν

τῷ σώματι. Τῇ μὲν οὖν σηπίᾳ καὶ τῇ τευθίδι καὶ τῷ τεύθῳ

ἐντός ἐστι τὰ στερεὰ ἐν τῷ πρανεῖ τοῦ σώματος, ἃ καλοῦσι

τὸ μὲν σήπιον, τὸ δὲ ξίφος. Διαφέρει δέ· τὸ μὲν γὰρ σήπιον

25 ἰσχυρὸν καὶ πλατύ ἐστι, μεταξὺ ἀκάνθης καὶ ὀστοῦ,

ἔχον ἐν αὑτῷ ψαθυρότητα σομφήν, τὸ δὲ τῶν τευθίδων

λεπτὸν καὶ χονδρωδέστερον. Τῷ δὲ σχήματι διαφέρουσιν ἀλλήλων

ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ κύτη. Οἱ δὲ πολύποδες οὐκ ἔχουσιν

εἴσω στερεὸν τοιοῦτον οὐδέν, ἀλλὰ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν χονδρῶδες,

30 ὃ γίνεται, ἐάν τις αὐτῶν παλαιωθῇ, σκληρόν. Τὰ δὲ

θήλεα τῶν ἀρρένων διαφέρουσιν· οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἄρρενες ἔχουσι

πόρον ὑπὸ τὸν στόμαχον, ἀπὸ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου τείνοντα πρὸς

τὸ κάτω τοῦ κύτους· ἔστι δὲ πρὸς ὃ τείνει, ὅμοιον μαστῷ·

1There is here situated a mouth, and two teeth in the mouth; and above these two large eyes, and betwixt the eyes a small cartilage enclosing a small brain; and within the mouth it has a minute organ of a fleshy nature, and this it uses as a tongue, for no other tongue does it possess. Next 5after this, on the outside, is what looks like a sac; the flesh of which it is made is divisible, not in long straight strips, but in annular flakes; and all molluscs have a cuticle around this flesh. Next after or at the back of the mouth comes a long and narrow oesophagus, and close after that a crop or craw, large and spherical, like that of a bird; then comes the 10stomach, like the fourth stomach in ruminants; and the shape of it resembles the spiral convolution in the trumpet-shell; from the stomach there goes back again, in the direction of the mouth, thin gut, and the gut is thicker than the oesophagus. (See diagram.)
Molluscs have no viscera, but they have what is called a mytis, and on it a vessel containing a thick 15black juice; in the sepia or cuttle-fish this vessel is the largest, and this juice is most abundant. All molluscs, when frightened, discharge such a juice, but the discharge is most copious in the cuttle-fish. The mytis, then, is situated under the mouth, and the oesophagus runs through it; and down below at the point to which the gut extends is the vesicle of the 20black juice, and the animal has the vesicle and the gut enveloped in one and the same membrane, and by the same membrane, same orifice discharges both the black juice and the residuum. The animals have also certain hair-like or furry growths in their bodies.
In the sepia, the teuthis, and the teuthus the hard parts are within, towards the back of the body; those 25parts are called in one the sepium, and in the other the 'sword'. They differ from one another, for the sepium in the cuttle-fish and teuthus is hard and flat, being a substance intermediate between bone and fishbone, with (in part) a crumbling, spongy texture, but in the teuthis the part is thin and somewhat gristly. These parts differ from one another in shape, as 30do also the bodies of the animals. The octopus has nothing hard of this kind in its interior, but it has a gristly substance round the head, which, if the animal grows old, becomes hard.
The females differ from the males.

525a

1 ἐν δὲ ταῖς θηλείαις δύο τε ταῦτ' ἐστὶ καὶ ἄνω. Ἀμφοτέροις

δ' ὑπὸ ταῦτα ἐρυθρὰ ἄττα σωμάτια πρόσεστιν. Τὸ δ' ᾠὸν ὁ

μὲν πολύπους ἓν καὶ ἀνώμαλον ἔξωθεν καὶ μέγα ἴσχει· ἔσω

δὲ τὸ ὑγρόν, ὁμόχρουν ἅπαν καὶ λεῖον, χρῶμα δὲ λευκόν·

5 τὸ δὲ πλῆθος τοῦ ᾠοῦ τοσοῦτον ὥστε πληροῦν ἀγγεῖον μεῖζον

τῆς τοῦ πολύποδος κεφαλῆς. Ἡ δὲ σηπία δύο τε τὰ κύτη

καὶ πολλὰ ᾠὰ ἐν τούτοις, χαλάζαις ὅμοια λευκαῖς. Ἕκαστα

δὲ τούτων ὡς κεῖται τῶν μορίων, θεωρείσθω ἐκ τῆς ἐν ταῖς

ἀνατομαῖς διαγραφῆς. Πάντα δὲ τὰ ἄρρενα ταῦτα τῶν θηλειῶν

10 διαφέρει, καὶ μάλιστα ἡ σηπία· τά τε γὰρ πρανῆ

τοῦ κύτους, ὄντα μελάντερα τῶν ὑπτίων, τραχύτερά τ' ἔχει

ὁ ἄρρην τῆς θηλείας, καὶ διαποίκιλα ῥάβδοις, καὶ τὸ ὀρροπύγιον

ὀξύτερον. Ἔστι δὲ γένη πλείω πολυπόδων, ἓν μὲν

τὸ μάλιστ' ἐπιπολάζον καὶ μέγιστον αὐτῶν (εἰσὶ δὲ πολὺ

15 μείζους οἱ πρόσγειοι τῶν πελαγίων), ἔτι δ' ἄλλοι μικροί,

ποικίλοι, οἳ οὐκ ἐσθίονται. Ἄλλα τε δύο, ἥ τε καλουμένη

ἑλεδώνη, μήκει τε διαφέρουσα τῷ τῶν ποδῶν καὶ τῷ μονοκότυλον

εἶναι μόνην τῶν μαλακίων (τὰ γὰρ ἄλλα πάντα

δικότυλά ἐστι), καὶ ἣν καλοῦσιν οἱ μὲν βολίταιναν οἱ δ' ὄζολιν.

20 Ἔτι δ' ἄλλοι δύο ἐν ὀστρείοις, ὅ τε καλούμενος ὑπό τινων

ναυτίλος καὶ ποντίλος, ὑπ' ἐνίων δ' ᾠὸν πολύποδος· τὸ δ'

ὄστρακον αὐτοῦ ἐστιν οἷον κτεὶς κοῖλος καὶ οὐ συμφυής. Οὗτος

νέμεται πολλάκις παρὰ τὴν γῆν, εἶθ' ὑπὸ τῶν κυμάτων

ἐκκλύζεται εἰς τὸ ξηρόν, καὶ περιπεσόντος τοῦ ὀστρέου ἁλίςκεται

25 καὶ ἐν τῇ γῇ ἀποθνήσκει. Εἰσὶ δ' οὗτοι μικροί, τὸ εἶδος

ὅμοιοι ταῖς βολιταίναις. Καὶ ἄλλος ἐν ὀστράκῳ οἷον κοχλίας,

ὃς οὐκ ἐξέρχεται ἐκ τοῦ ὀστράκου, ἀλλ' ἔνεστιν ὥσπερ

ὁ κοχλίας, καὶ ἔξω ἐνίοτε τὰς πλεκτάνας προτείνει. Περὶ

μὲν οὖν τῶν μαλακίων εἴρηται.

1The males have a duct in under the oesophagus, extending from the mantle-cavity to the lower portion of the sac, and there is an organ to which it attaches, resembling a breast; (see diagram) in the female there are two of these organs, situated higher up; (see diagram) with both sexes there are underneath these organs certain 5red formations. The egg of the octopus is single, uneven on its surface, and of large size; the fluid substance within is all uniform in colour, smooth, and in colour white; the size of the egg is so great as to fill a vessel larger than the creature's head. The sepia has two sacs, and inside them a number of eggs, like in appearance to white hailstones. For the disposition of these parts I must refer to my 10anatomical diagrams.
The males of all these animals differ from the females, and the difference between the sexes is most marked in the sepia; for the back of the trunk, which is blacker than the belly, is rougher in the male than in the female, and in the male the back is striped, and the rump is more sharply pointed.
There are several species of the octopus. One keeps close to the surface, and is the largest 15of them all, and near the shore the size is larger than in deep water; and there are others, small, variegated in colour, which are not articles of food. There are two others, one called the heledone, which differs from its congeners in the length of its legs and in having one row of suckers-all the rest of the molluscs having two,-the other nicknamed variously the bolitaina or the 'onion,' and the ozolis or 20the 'stinkard'.
There are two others found in shells resembling those of the testaceans. One of them is nicknamed by some persons the nautilus or the pontilus, or by others the 'polypus' egg'; and the shell of this creature is something like a separate valve of a deep scallop-shell. This polypus lives very often near to the shore, and is apt to be thrown up high and dry on the beach; under these circumstances 25it is found with its shell detached, and dies by and by on dry land. These polypods are small, and are shaped, as regards the form of their bodies, like the bolbidia. There is another polypus that is placed within a shell like a snail; it never comes out of the shell, but lives inside the shell like the snail, and from time to time protrudes its feelers.
So much for molluscs.

Book 4,Chapter 2 (525a30–527a35)

30 Τῶν δὲ μαλακοστράκων ἓν μέν ἐστι γένος τὸ τῶν καράβων,

καὶ τούτῳ παραπλήσιον ἕτερον τὸ τῶν καλουμένων

ἀστακῶν· οὗτοι δὲ διαφέρουσι τῶν καράβων τῷ ἔχειν χηλὰς

καὶ ἄλλας τινὰς διαφορὰς οὐ πολλάς. Ἓν δὲ τὸ τῶν καρίδων,

καὶ ἄλλο τὸ τῶν καρκίνων. Γένη δὲ πλείω τῶν καρίδων

With regard to the Malacostraca 30or crustaceans, one species is that of the crawfish, and a second, resembling the first, is that of the lobster; the lobster differing from the crawfish in having claws, and in a few other respects as well. Another species is that of the carid, and another is that of the crab, and there are many kinds both of carid and of crab.

525b

1 ἐστὶ καὶ τῶν καρκίνων, τῶν μὲν καρίδων αἵ τε κυφαὶ

καὶ αἱ κράγγονες καὶ τὸ μικρὸν γένος (αὗται γὰρ οὐ γίνονται

μείζους), τῶν δὲ καρκίνων παντοδαπώτερον τὸ γένος καὶ

οὐκ εὐαρίθμητον. Μέγιστον μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἃς καλοῦσι μαίας,

5 δεύτερον δ' οἵ τε πάγουροι καὶ οἱ Ἡρακλεωτικοὶ καρκίνοι,

ἔτι δ' οἱ ποτάμιοι· οἱ δ' ἄλλοι ἐλάττους καὶ ἀνωνυμώτεροι.

Περὶ δὲ τὴν Φοινίκην γίνονται ἐν τῷ αἰγιαλῷ οὓς καλοῦσιν

ἵππους διὰ τὸ οὕτω ταχέως θεῖν ὥστε μὴ ῥᾴδιον εἶναι καταλαβεῖν·

ἀνοιχθέντες δὲ κενοὶ διὰ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν νομήν. Ἔστι δὲ

10 καὶ ἕτερον γένος μικρὸν μὲν ὥσπερ οἱ καρκίνοι, τὸ δ' εἶδος

ὅμοιον τοῖς ἀστακοῖς. Πάντα μὲν οὖν ταῦτα, καθάπερ εἴρηται

πρότερον, τὸ μὲν στερεὸν καὶ ὀστρακῶδες ἐκτὸς ἔχει ἐν

τῇ χώρᾳ τῇ τοῦ δέρματος, τὸ δὲ σαρκῶδες ἐντός, τὰ δ' ἐν

τοῖς ὑπτίοις πλακωδέστερα, εἰς ἃ καὶ ἐκτίκτουσιν αἱ θήλειαι.

15 Πόδας δ' οἱ μὲν κάραβοι ἐφ' ἑκάτερα ἔχουσι πέντε σὺν ταῖς

ἐσχάταις χηλαῖς· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ οἱ καρκίνοι δέκα τοὺς

πάντας σὺν ταῖς χηλαῖς. Τῶν δὲ καρίδων αἱ μὲν κυφαὶ

πέντε μὲν ἐφ' ἑκάτερα ἔχουσιν, ὀξεῖς τοὺς πρὸς τῇ κεφαλῇ,

ἄλλους δὲ πέντε ἐφ' ἑκάτερα κατὰ τὴν γαστέρα, τὰ ἄκρα

20 ἔχοντας πλατέα· πλάκας δ' ἐν ὑπτίοις οὐκ ἔχουσι, τὰ

δ' ἐν τοῖς πρανέσιν ὅμοια τοῖς καράβοις. Ἡ δὲ κραγγὼν

ἀνάπαλιν· τοὺς πρώτους γὰρ ἔχει τέτταρας ἐφ' ἑκάτερα, εἶτ'

ἄλλους ἐχομένους λεπτοὺς τρεῖς ἐφ' ἑκάτερα, τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν

πλεῖον μόριον τοῦ σώματος ἄπουν ἐστίν. Κάμπτονται δ' οἱ

25 μὲν πόδες πάντων εἰς τὸ πλάγιον, ὥσπερ καὶ τῶν ἐντόμων,

αἱ δὲ χηλαί, ὅσα ἔχει χηλάς, εἰς τὸ ἐντός. Ἔχει

δ' ὁ κάραβος καὶ κέρκον, πτερύγια δὲ πέντε· καὶ ἡ καρὶς

ἡ κυφὴ τὴν οὐρὰν καὶ πτερύγια τέτταρα. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ἡ

κραγγὼν πτερύγια ἐφ' ἑκάτερα ἐν τῇ οὐρᾷ· τὸ δὲ μέσον αὐτῶν

30 ἀμφότεραι ἀκανθῶδες, πλὴν αὕτη μὲν πλατύ, ἡ δὲ

κυφὴ ὀξύ. Ὁ δὲ καρκίνος μόνος τῶν τοιούτων ἀνορροπύγιον·

καὶ τὸ σῶμα τὸ μὲν τῶν καρίδων καὶ τῶν καράβων πρόμηκες,

τὸ δὲ τῶν καρκίνων στρογγύλον. Διαφέρει δ' ὁ κάραβος

ὁ ἄρρην τῆς θηλείας· τῆς μὲν γὰρ θηλείας ὁ πρῶτος

1Of carids there are the so-called cyphae, or 'hunch-backs', the crangons, or squillae, and the little kind, or shrimps, and the little kind do not develop into a larger kind.
Of the crab, the varieties are indefinite and incalculable. The largest of all crabs is one nicknamed Maia, a second 5variety is the pagarus and the crab of Heracleotis, and a third variety is the fresh-water crab; the other varieties are smaller in size and destitute of special designations. In the neighbourhood of Phoenice there are found on the beach certain crabs that are nicknamed the 'horsemen', from their running with such speed that it is difficult to overtake them; these crabs, 10when opened, are usually found empty, and this emptiness may be put down to insufficiency of nutriment. (There is another variety, small like the crab, but resembling in shape the lobster.) All these animals, as has been stated, have their hard and shelly part outside, where the skin is in other animals, and the fleshy part inside; and the belly is more or less provided 15with lamellae, or little flaps, and the female here deposits her spawn.
The crawfishes have five feet on either side, including the claws at the end; and in like manner the crabs have ten feet in all, including the claws. Of the carids, the hunch-backed, or prawns, have five feet on either side, which are sharp-pointed-those towards the head; and five others on either 20side in the region of the belly, with their extremities flat; they are devoid of flaps on the under side such as the crawfish has, but on the back they resemble the crawfish. (See diagram.)It is very different with the crangon, or squilla; it has four front legs on either side, then three thin ones close behind on either side, and the rest of the body is for the most 25part devoid of feet. (See diagram.) Of all these animals the feet bend out obliquely, as is the case with insects; and the claws, where claws are found, turn inwards. The crawfish has a tail, and five fins on it; and the round-backed carid has a tail and four fins; the squilla also has fins at the tail on either side. In the case of both the hump-backed carid and the 30squilla the middle art of the tail is spinous: only that in the squilla the part is flattened and in the carid it is sharp-pointed. Of all animals of this genus the crab is the only one devoid of a rump; and, while the body of the carid and the crawfish is elongated, that of the crab is rotund.

526a

1 ποὺς δίκρους ἐστί, τοῦ δ' ἄρρενος μῶνυξ, καὶ τὰ πτερύγια

τὰ ἐν τῷ ὑπτίῳ ἡ μὲν θήλεια μεγάλα ἔχει καὶ ἐπαλλάττοντα

πρὸς τῷ τραχήλῳ, ὁ δ' ἄρρην ἐλάττω καὶ οὐκ ἐπαλλάττοντα·

ἔτι τοῦ μὲν ἄρρενος ἐν τοῖς τελευταίοις ποσὶ μεγάλα

5 καὶ ὀξέα ἐστὶν ὥσπερ πλῆκτρα, τῆς δὲ θηλείας ταῦτα μικρὰ

καὶ λεῖα. Ὁμοίως δ' ἔχουσιν ἀμφότερα κεραίας δύο πρὸ

τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν μεγάλας καὶ τραχείας, καὶ ἄλλα κεράτια

μικρὰ ὑποκάτω λεῖα. Τὰ δ' ὄμματα πάντων τούτων ἐστὶ

σκληρόφθαλμα, καὶ κινεῖται καὶ ἐκτὸς καὶ ἐντὸς καὶ εἰς

10 τὸ πλάγιον· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τοῖς καρκίνοις τοῖς πλείστοις,

καὶ ἔτι μᾶλλον. Ὁ δ' ἀστακὸς τὸ μὲν ὅλον ὑπόλευκον ἔχει

τὸ χρῶμα, μέλανι δὲ διαπεπασμένον. Ἔχει δὲ τοὺς μὲν

ὑποκάτω πόδας τοὺς ἄχρι τῶν μεγάλων ὀκτώ, μετὰ δὲ

ταῦτα τοὺς μεγάλους πολλῷ μείζους καὶ ἐξ ἄκρου πλατυτέρους

15 ἢ ὁ κάραβος, ἀνωμάλους δ' αὐτούς· ὁ μὲν γὰρ δεξιὸς τὸ

πλατὺ τὸ ἔσχατον πρόμηκες ἔχει καὶ λεπτόν, ὁ δ' ἀριστερὸς

παχὺ καὶ στρογγύλον. Ἐξ ἄκρου δ' ἑκάτερος ἐσχισμένος

ὥσπερ σιαγὼν ὀδόντας ἔχων καὶ κάτωθεν καὶ ἄνωθεν, πλὴν

ὁ μὲν δεξιὸς μικροὺς ἅπαντας καὶ καρχαρόδοντας, ὁ δ' ἀριστερὸς

20 ἐξ ἄκρου μὲν καρχαρόδοντας, τοὺς δ' ἐντὸς ὥσπερ

γομφίους, ἐκ μὲν τοῦ κάτω μέρους τέτταρας καὶ συνεχεῖς, ἄνωθεν

δὲ τρεῖς καὶ οὐ συνεχεῖς. Κινοῦσι δὲ τὸ ἄνω μέρος ἀμφότεροι,

καὶ προσπιέζουσι πρὸς τὸ κάτω· βλαισοὶ δ' ἀμφότεροι

τῇ θέσει, καθάπερ πρὸς τὸ λαβεῖν καὶ πιέσαι πεφυκότες.

25 Ἐπάνω δὲ τῶν μεγάλων ἄλλοι δύο δασεῖς, μικρὸν

ὑποκάτω τοῦ στόματος, καὶ ὑποκάτω τούτων τὰ βραγχιώδη

τὰ περὶ τὸ στόμα, δασέα καὶ πολλά. Ταῦτα δ' ἀεὶ διατελεῖ

κινῶν· κάμπτει δὲ καὶ προσάγεται τοὺς δύο πόδας

πρὸς τὸ στόμα τοὺς δασεῖς. Ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ παραφυάδας λεπτὰς

30 οἱ πρὸς τῷ στόματι πόδες. Ὀδόντας δ' ἔχει δύο καθάπερ

ὁ κάραβος, ἐπάνω δὲ τούτων τὰ κέρατα μακρά, βραχύτερα

δὲ καὶ λεπτότερα πολὺ ἢ ὁ κάραβος, καὶ ἄλλα

τέτταρα τὴν μὲν μορφὴν ὅμοια τούτοις, βραχύτερα δὲ καὶ

1In the crawfish the male differs from the female: in the female the first foot is bifurcate, in the male it is undivided; the belly-fins in the female are large and overlapping on the neck, while in the male they are smaller and do not overlap; and, further, on the last feet of the male there are 5spur-like projections, large and sharp, which projections in the female are small and smooth. Both male and female have two antennae in front of the eyes, large and rough, and other antennae underneath, small and smooth. The eyes of all these creatures are hard and beady, and can move either to the inner or to the outer side. The eyes of most crabs have a similar facility of 10movement, or rather, in the crab this facility is developed in a higher degree. (See diagram.)
The lobster is all over grey-coloured, with a mottling of black. Its under or hinder feet, up to the big feet or claws, are eight in number; then come the big feet, far larger and flatter at the tips than the same organs in the crawfish; and these big feet or claws are exceptional in their 15structure, for the right claw has the extreme flat surface long and thin, while the left claw has the corresponding surface thick and round. Each of the two claws, divided at the end like a pair of jaws, has both below and above a set of teeth: only that in the right claw they are all small and saw-shaped, while in the left claw those at the apex are saw-shaped and those 20within are molar-shaped, these latter being, in the under part of the cleft claw, four teeth close together, and in the upper part three teeth, not close together. Both right and left claws have the upper part mobile, and bring it to bear against the lower one, and both are curved like bandy-legs, being thereby adapted for apprehension and constriction. Above the two large claws 25come two others, covered with hair, a little underneath the mouth; and underneath these the gill-like formations in the region of the mouth, hairy and numerous. These organs the animal keeps in perpetual motion; and the two hairy feet it bends and draws in towards its mouth. The feet near the mouth are furnished also with delicate outgrowing appendages. Like the crawfish, 30the lobster has two teeth, or mandibles, and above these teeth are its antennae, long, but shorter and finer by far than those of the crawfish, and then four other antennae similar in shape, but shorter and finer than the others.

526b

1 λεπτότερα. Τούτων δ' ἐπάνω τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς μικροὺς καὶ

βραχεῖς, οὐχ ὥσπερ ὁ κάραβος μεγάλους. Τὸ δ' ἐπάνω τῶν

ὀφθαλμῶν ὀξὺ καὶ τραχύ, καθαπερεὶ μέτωπον, μεῖζον

ἢ ὁ κάραβος. Ὅλως δὲ τὸ μὲν πρόσωπον ὀξύτερον, τὸν δὲ

5 θώρακα εὐρύτερον ἔχει πολὺ τοῦ καράβου, καὶ τὸ ὅλον σῶμα

σαρκωδέστερον καὶ μαλακώτερον. Τῶν δ' ὀκτὼ ποδῶν οἱ

μὲν τέτταρες ἐξ ἄκρου δίκροοί εἰσιν, οἱ δὲ τέτταρες οὔ. Τὰ δὲ

περὶ τὸν τράχηλον καλούμενον διῄρηται μὲν ἔξωθεν πενταχῇ,

καὶ ἕκτον ἐστὶ τὸ πλατὺ τὸ ἔσχατον, πέντε πλάκας ἔχον·

10 τὰ δ' ἐντός, εἰς ἃ προεντίκτουσιν αἱ θήλειαι, δασέα τέτταρα.

Καθ' ἕκαστον δὲ τῶν εἰρημένων πρὸς τὰ ἔξω ἄκανθαν ἔχει

βραχεῖαν καὶ ὀρθήν. Τὸ δ' ὅλον σῶμα καὶ τὰ περὶ τὸν

θώρακα λεῖα, οὐχ ὥσπερ ὁ κάραβος τραχύς· ἀλλ' ἐν

τοῖς μεγάλοις ποσὶ τὰ ἔξωθεν ἀκάνθας ἔχει μείζους. Τῆς

15 δὲ θηλείας πρὸς τὸν ἄρρενα οὐδεμία διαφορὰ φαίνεται·

καὶ γὰρ ὁ ἄρρην καὶ ἡ θήλεια ὁποτέραν ἂν τύχῃ τῶν χηλῶν

ἔχουσι μείζω, ἴσας μέντοι ἀμφοτέρας οὐδέτερος οὐδέποτε.

Τὴν δὲ θάλατταν δέχονται μὲν παρὰ τὸ στόμα πάντα

τὰ τοιαῦτα, ἀφιᾶσι δ' ἐπιλαμβάνοντα μικρὸν τούτου μόριον

20 οἱ καρκίνοι, οἱ δὲ κάραβοι παρὰ τὰ βραγχιοειδῆ·

ἔχουσι δὲ τὰ βραγχιοειδῆ πολλὰ οἱ κάραβοι. Κοινὸν δὲ πάντων

τούτων ἐστίν· ὀδόντας τε πάντ' ἔχει δύο (καὶ γὰρ οἱ

κάραβοι τοὺς πρώτους δύο ἔχουσι) καὶ ἐν τῷ στόματι σαρκωδέστερον

ἀντὶ γλώττης, εἶτα κοιλίαν τοῦ στόματος ἐχομένην

25 εὐθύς, πλὴν οἱ κάραβοι μικρὸν στόμαχον πρὸ τῆς κοιλίας,

εἶτ' ἐκ ταύτης ἔντερον εὐθύ. Τελευτᾷ δὲ τοῦτο τοῖς μὲν καραβοειδέσι

καὶ καρίσι κατ' εὐθυωρίαν πρὸς τὴν οὐράν, ᾗ τὸ

περίττωμα ἀφιᾶσι καὶ τὰ ᾠὰ ἐκτίκτουσιν, τοῖς δὲ καρκίνοις,

ᾗ τὸ ἐπίπτυγμα ἔχουσι, κατὰ μέσον τὸ ἐπίπτυγμα, ᾗ τὰ

30 ᾠὰ ἐκτίκτουσιν (ἐκτὸς δὲ καὶ οὗτοι). Ἔτι τὰ θήλεα αὐτῶν

παρὰ τὸ ἔντερον τὴν τῶν ᾠῶν χώραν ἔχουσιν. Καὶ τὴν

καλουμένην δὲ μύτιν ἢ μήκωνα πλείω ἢ ἐλάττω πάντ' ἔχει

ταῦτα. Τὰς δ' ἰδίας ἤδη διαφορὰς καθ' ἕκαστον δεῖ θεωρεῖν.

1Over these antennae come the eyes, small and short, not large like the eyes of the crawfish. Over the eyes is a peaky rough projection like a forehead, larger than the same part in the crawfish; in fact, the frontal part is more pointed and the thorax is much broader in the lobster 5than in the crawfish, and the body in general is smoother and more full of flesh. Of the eight feet, four are bifurcate at the extremities, and four are undivided. The region of the so-called neck is outwardly divided into five divisions, and sixthly comes the flattened portion at the end, and this portion has five flaps, or tail-fins; and the inner or 10under parts, into which the female drops her spawn, are four in number and hairy, and on each of the aforesaid parts is a spine turned outwards, short and straight. The body in general and the region of the thorax in particular are smooth, not rough as in the crawfish; but on the large claws the outer portion has larger spines. There is no apparent 15difference between the male and female, for they both have one claw, whichever it may be, larger than the other, and neither male nor female is ever found with both claws of the same size.
All crustaceans take in water close by the mouth. The crab discharges it, closing up, as it does so, a small portion of the same, and the crawfish discharges it by 20way of the gills; and, by the way, the gill-shaped organs in the crawfish are very numerous.
The following properties are common to all crustaceans: they have in all cases two teeth, or mandibles (for the front teeth in the crawfish are two in number), and in all cases there is in the mouth a small fleshy structure serving for a tongue; and the stomach 25is close to the mouth, only that the crawfish has a little oesophagus in front of the stomach, and there is a straight gut attached to it. This gut, in the crawfish and its congeners, and in the carids, extends in a straight line to the tail, and terminates where the animal discharges the residuum, and where the female deposits her spawn; in the crab it 30terminates where the flap is situated, and in the centre of the flap. (And by the way, in all these animals the spawn is deposited outside.) Further, the female has the place for the spawn running along the gut.

527a

1 Οἱ μὲν οὖν κάραβοι, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, δύο ἔχουσιν

ὀδόντας μεγάλους καὶ κοίλους, ἐν οἷς ἔνεστι χυμὸς ὅμοιος τῇ

μύτιδι, μεταξὺ δὲ τῶν ὀδόντων σαρκίον γλωττοειδές. Ἀπὸ

δὲ τοῦ στόματος ἔχει οἰσοφάγον βραχὺν καὶ κοιλίαν τούτου

5 ἐχομένην ὑμενώδη, ἧς πρὸς τῷ στόματι ὀδόντες εἰσὶ τρεῖς,

οἱ μὲν δύο κατ' ἀλλήλους, ὁ δ' εἷς ὑποκάτω. Τῆς δὲ κοιλίας

ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου ἔντερον ἁπλοῦν καὶ ἰσοπαχὲς δι'

ὅλου μέχρι πρὸς τὴν ἔξοδον τοῦ περιττώματος. Ταῦτα μὲν

οὖν πάντα ἔχουσι καὶ οἱ κάραβοι καὶ αἱ καρίδες καὶ οἱ

10 καρκίνοι· καὶ γὰρ ὀδόντας δύο ἔχουσιν οἱ καρκίνοι. Ἔτι δ'

οἵ γε κάραβοι πόρον ἔχουσιν ἀπὸ τοῦ στήθους ἠρτημένον μέχρι

πρὸς τὴν ἔξοδον τοῦ περιττώματος· οὗτος δ' ἐστὶ τῇ μὲν

θηλείᾳ ὑστερικός, τῷ δ' ἄρρενι θορικός. Ἔστι δ' ὁ πόρος οὗτος

πρὸς τῷ κοίλῳ τῆς σαρκός, ὥστε μεταξὺ εἶναι τὴν σάρκα·

15 τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἔντερον πρὸς τῷ κυρτῷ ἐστιν, ὁ δὲ πόρος πρὸς

τῷ κοίλῳ, ὁμοίως ἔχοντα ταῦτα ὥσπερ τοῖς τετράποσιν.

Διαφέρει δ' οὐδὲν ὁ τοῦ ἄρρενος ἢ τῆς θηλείας· ἀμφότεροι

γάρ εἰσι λεπτοὶ καὶ λευκοὶ καὶ ὑγρότητα ἔχοντες ἐν αὑτοῖς

ὠχράν, ἔτι δ' ἠρτημένοι ἀμφότεροι ἐκ τοῦ στήθους.

20 Ἔχουσι δ' οὕτω τὸ ᾠὸν καὶ αἱ καρίδες καὶ τὰς ἑλίκας. Ἰδίᾳ

δ' ἔχει ὁ ἄρρην πρὸς τὴν θήλειαν ἐν τῇ σαρκὶ κατὰ τὸ

στῆθος δύο λεύκ' ἄττα καθ' αὑτά, ὅμοια τὸ χρῶμα καὶ

τὴν σύστασιν ταῖς τῆς σηπίας προβοσκίσιν· εἱλιγμένα δ'

ἐστὶ ταῦτα ὥσπερ ἡ τοῦ κήρυκος μήκων. Ἡ δ' ἀρχὴ τούτων

25 ἐστὶν ἀπὸ τῶν κοτυληδόνων, αἵ εἰσιν ὑποκάτω τῶν ἐσχάτων

ποδῶν. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ἐν τούτῳ σάρκα ἐρυθρὰν καὶ αἱματώδη

τὴν χρόαν, τῇ δ' ἁφῇ γλίσχραν καὶ οὐχ ὁμοίαν

τῇ σαρκί. Ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ περὶ τὰ στήθη κηρυκώδους ἄλλος

ἐστὶν ἑλιγμός, ὥσπερ ἁρπεδόνη τὸ πάχος· ὧν ὑποκάτω δύο

30 ἄττα ψαθυρά ἐστι προσηρτημένα τῷ ἐντέρῳ θορικά. Ταῦτα

μὲν οὖν ὁ ἄρρην ἔχει· ἡ δὲ θήλεια ᾠὰ ἔχει τὸ χρῶμα

ἐρυθρά, ὧν ἡ πρόσφυσίς ἐστι πρὸς τῇ κοιλίᾳ καὶ τοῦ ἐντέρου

ἑκατέρωθι μέχρι εἰς τὸ σαρκῶδες, ὑμένι λεπτῷ περιεχόμενα.

Τὰ μὲν οὖν μόρια ὅσα ἐντὸς καὶ ἐκτὸς ἔχουσι,

35 ταῦτά ἐστιν.

1And, again, all these animals have, more or less, an organ termed the 'mytis', or 'poppyjuice'.
We must now proceed to review their several differentiae.
The crawfish then, as has been said, has two teeth, large and hollow, in which is contained a juice resembling the mytis, and in between 5the teeth is a fleshy substance, shaped like a tongue. After the mouth comes a short oesophagus, and then a membranous stomach attached to the oesophagus, and at the orifice Of the stomach are three teeth, two facing one another and a third standing by itself underneath. Coming off at a bend from the stomach is a gut, simple and of equal thickness throughout the 10entire length of the body until it reaches the anal vent.
These are all common properties of the crawfish, the carid, and the crab; for the crab, be it remembered, has two teeth.
Again, the crawfish has a duct attached all the way from the chest to the anal vent; and this duct is connected with the ovary in the female, and with the seminal ducts in the male. 15This passage is attached to the concave surface of the flesh in such a way that the flesh is in betwixt the duct and the gut; for the gut is related to the convexity and this duct to the concavity, pretty much as is observed in quadrupeds. And the duct is identical in both the sexes; that is to say, the duct in both is thin and white, and charged with a sallow-coloured 20moisture, and is attached to the chest.
(The following are the properties of the egg and of the convolutes in the carid.)
The male, by the way, differs from the female in regard to its flesh, in having in connexion with the chest two separate and distinct white substances, resembling in colour and conformation the tentacles of the cuttle-fish, and they 25are convoluted like the 'poppy' or quasi-liver of the trumpet-shell. These organs have their starting-point in 'cotyledons' or papillae, which are situated under the hindmost feet; and hereabouts the flesh is red and blood-coloured, but is slippery to the touch and in so far unlike flesh. Off from the convolute organ at the chest branches off another coil about as 30thick as ordinary twine; and underneath there are two granular seminal bodies in juxta-position with the gut. These are the organs of the male. The female has red-coloured eggs, which are adjacent to the stomach and to each side of the gut all along to the fleshy parts, being enveloped in a thin membrane.
Such are the parts, internal and external, of the carid.

Book 4,Chapter 3 (527b1–34)

527b

1 Συμβέβηκε δὲ τῶν μὲν ἐναίμων τὰ ἐντὸς μόρια ὀνόματα

ἔχειν· πάντα γὰρ σπλάγχνα ἔχει τὰ ἔσωθεν· τῶν

δ' ἀναίμων οὐδέν, ἀλλὰ κοινὸν τούτοις καὶ ἐκείνοις πᾶσι κοιλία

καὶ στόμαχος καὶ ἔντερον. Οἱ δὲ καρκίνοι, περὶ μὲν τῶν

5 χηλῶν καὶ τῶν ποδῶν, ὅτι ἔχουσι καὶ πῶς ἔχουσιν, εἴρηται

πρότερον· ὡς δ' ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ πάντες τὴν δεξιὰν ἔχουσι μείζω

χηλὴν καὶ ἰσχυροτέραν. Εἴρηται δὲ πρότερον καὶ περὶ

ὀφθαλμῶν, ὅτι εἰς τὸ πλάγιον βλέπουσιν οἱ πλεῖστοι. Τὸ δὲ

κύτος τοῦ σώματος ἕν ἐστιν ἀδιόριστον, ἔτι δὲ κεφαλή, καὶ

10 εἴ τι ἄλλο μόριον. Ἔχουσι δ' ὀφθαλμοὺς οἱ μὲν ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου

ἄνω ὑπὸ τὸ πρανὲς εὐθὺς πολὺ διεστῶτας, ἔνιοι δ' ἐν

μέσῳ καὶ ἐγγὺς ἀλλήλων, οἷον οἱ Ἡρακλεωτικοὶ καὶ αἱ

μαῖαι. Ὑποκάτω δὲ τὸ στόμα τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν, καὶ ἐν αὐτῷ

ὀδόντας δύο ὥσπερ ὁ κάραβος, πλὴν οὐ στρογγύλοι οὗτοι

15 ἀλλὰ μακροί. Καὶ ἐπὶ τούτων ἐπικαλύμματά ἐστι δύο, ὧν

μεταξύ ἐστιν οἷά περ ὁ κάραβος ἔχει πρὸς τοῖς ὀδοῦσιν. Δέχεται

μὲν οὖν τὸ ὕδωρ παρὰ τὸ στόμα, ἀπωθῶν τοῖς ἐπικαλύμμασιν,

ἀφίησι δὲ κατὰ τοὺς ἄνω πόρους τοῦ στόματος,

ἐπιλαμβάνων τοῖς ἐπικαλύμμασιν, ᾗ εἰσῆλθεν· οὗτοι δ' εἰσὶν

20 εὐθὺς ὑπὸ τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς· καὶ ὅταν δέξηται τὸ ὕδωρ,

ἐπιλαμβάνει τὸ στόμα τοῖς ἐπικαλύμμασιν ἀμφοτέροις,

ἔπειθ' οὕτως ἀποπυτίζει τὴν θάλατταν. Ἐχόμενος δὲ τῶν ὀδόντων

ὁ στόμαχος βραχὺς πάμπαν, ὥστε δοκεῖν εὐθὺς εἶναι

μετὰ τὸ στόμα τὴν κοιλίαν. Καὶ κοιλία τούτου ἐχομένη δικρόα,

25 ἧς ἐκ μέσης μὲν τὸ ἔντερόν ἐστιν ἁπλοῦν καὶ λεπτόν·

τελευτᾷ δὲ τὸ ἔντερον ὑπὸ τὸ ἐπικάλυμμα τὸ ἔξω, ὥσπερ

εἴρηται καὶ πρότερον. Ἔχει δὲ τὰ μεταξὺ τῶν ἐπικαλυμμάτων,

οἷά περ ὁ κάραβος, πρὸς τοῖς ὀδοῦσιν. Ἐν δὲ τῷ κύτει

ἔσω χυμός ἐστιν ὠχρός, καὶ μίκρ' ἄττα προμήκη λευκά,

30 καὶ ἄλλα πυρρὰ διαπεπασμένα. Διαφέρει δ' ὁ ἄρρην τῆς

θηλείας τῷ τε μεγέθει καὶ τῷ πλάτει καὶ τῷ ἐπικαλύμματι·

μεῖζον γὰρ τοῦτο ἔχει ἡ θήλεια, καὶ πλέον ἀφεστηκὸς καὶ

συνηρεφέστερον, καθάπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν θηλειῶν καράβων.

Τὰ μὲν οὖν τῶν μαλακοστράκων μόρια τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν

35 τρόπον.

1The inner organs of sanguineous animals happen to have specific designations; for these animals have in all cases the inner viscera, but this is not the case with the bloodless animals, but what they have in common with red-blooded animals is the stomach, the oesophagus, and the gut.
With regard to the crab, it has already been 5stated that it has claws and feet, and their position has been set forth; furthermore, for the most part they have the right claw bigger and stronger than the left. It has also been stated' that in general the eyes of the crab look sideways. Further, the trunk of the crab's body is single and undivided, including its head and any other part it may possess. Some crabs have eyes placed sideways on the upper part, 10immediately under the back, and standing a long way apart, and some have their eyes in the centre and close together, like the crabs of Heracleotis and the so-called 'grannies'. The mouth lies underneath the eyes, and inside it there are two teeth, as is the case with the crawfish, only that in the crab the teeth are not rounded but long; and over the teeth are two lids, and in betwixt them are structures 15such as the crawfish has besides its teeth. The crab takes in water near by the mouth, using the lids as a check to the inflow, and discharges the water by two passages above the mouth, closing by means of the lids the way by which it entered; and the two passage-ways are underneath the eyes. When it has taken in water it closes its mouth by means of both lids, and ejects the water in the way above described. 20Next after the teeth comes the oesophagus, very short, so short in fact that the stomach seems to come straightway after the mouth. Next after the oesophagus comes the stomach, two-horned, to the centre of which is attached a simple and delicate gut; and the gut terminates outwards, at the operculum, as has been previously stated. (The crab has the parts in between the lids in the neighbourhood of the teeth 25similar to the same parts in the crawfish.) Inside the trunk is a sallow juice and some few little bodies, long and white, and others spotted red. The male differs from the female in size and breadth, and in respect of the ventral flap; for this is larger in the female than in the male, and stands out further from the trunk, and is more hairy (as is the case also with the female in the crawfish).
So much, then, 30for the organs of the malacostraca or crustacea.

Book 4,Chapter 4 (527b35–530a31)

Τὰ δ' ὀστρακόδερμα τῶν ζῴων, οἷον οἵ τε κοχλίαι

With the ostracoderma, or testaceans, such as the land-snails and the sea-snails, and all the 'oysters' so-called, and also with the sea-urchin genus, the fleshy part, in such as have flesh, is similarly situated to the fleshy part in the crustaceans; in other words, it is inside the animal, and the shell is outside, and there is no hard substance in the interior.

528a

1 καὶ οἱ κόχλοι καὶ πάντα τὰ καλούμενα ὄστρεα, ἔτι δὲ

τὸ τῶν ἐχίνων γένος, τὸ μὲν σαρκῶδες, ὅσα σάρκας ἔχει,

ὁμοίως ἔχει τοῖς μαλακοστράκοις (ἐντὸς γὰρ ἔχει), τὸ δ'

ὄστρακον ἐκτός, ἐντὸς δ' οὐδὲν σκληρόν. Αὐτὰ δὲ πρὸς αὑτὰ

5 διαφορὰς ἔχει πολλὰς καὶ κατὰ τὰ ὄστρακα καὶ κατὰ τὴν

σάρκα τὴν ἐντός. Τὰ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν οὐκ ἔχει σάρκα οὐδεμίαν,

οἷον ἐχῖνος, τὰ δ' ἔχει μέν, ἐντὸς δ' ἔχει τὴν σάρκα

ἀφανῆ πᾶσαν πλὴν τῆς κεφαλῆς, οἷον οἵ τε χερσαῖοι κοχλίαι

καὶ τὰ καλούμενα ὑπό τινων κοκάλια καὶ τῶν ἐν τῇ

10 θαλάττῃ αἵ τε πορφύραι καὶ οἱ κήρυκες καὶ ὁ κόχλος καὶ

τἆλλα τὰ στρομβώδη. Τῶν δ' ἄλλων τὰ μέν ἐστι δίθυρα

τὰ δὲ μονόθυρα· λέγω δὲ δίθυρα τὰ δυσὶν ὀστράκοις περιεχόμενα,

μονόθυρα δὲ τὰ ἑνί· τὸ δὲ σαρκῶδες ἐπιπολῆς,

οἷον ἡ λεπάς. Τῶν δὲ διθύρων τὰ μέν ἐστιν ἀναπτυκτά, οἷον

15 οἵ τε κτένες καὶ οἱ μύες· ἅπαντα γὰρ τὰ τοιαῦτα τῇ μὲν

συμπέφυκε τῇ δὲ διαλέλυται, ὥστε συγκλείεσθαι καὶ ἀνοίγεσθαι.

Τὰ δὲ δίθυρα μέν ἐστιν, ὁμοίως δὲ συγκέκλεισται

ἐπ' ἀμφότερα, οἷον οἱ σωλῆνες. Ἔστι δ' ἃ ὅλα περιέχεται

τῷ ὀστράκῳ καὶ οὐδὲν τῆς σαρκὸς ἔχει εἰς τὸ ἔξω γυμνόν,

20 οἷον τὰ καλούμενα τήθυα. Ἔτι δ' αὐτῶν τῶν ὀστράκων διαφοραὶ

πρὸς ἄλληλά εἰσιν. Τὰ μὲν γάρ ἐστι λειόστρακα, ὥςπερ

σωλὴν καὶ μύες καὶ κόγχαι ἔνιαι αἱ καλούμεναι ὑπό

τινων γάλακες, τὰ δὲ τραχυόστρακα, οἷον τὰ λιμνόστρεα

καὶ πίννα καὶ γένη κόγχων ἔνια καὶ κήρυκες· καὶ τούτων

25 τὰ μὲν ῥαβδωτά ἐστιν, οἷον κτεὶς καὶ κόγχων τι γένος, τὰ

δ' ἀρράβδωτα, οἷον αἵ τε πίνναι καὶ κόγχων τι γένος. Καὶ

πάχει δὲ καὶ λεπτότητι τῶν ὀστράκων διαφέρουσιν, ὅλων τε

τῶν ὀστράκων καὶ κατὰ μέρος, οἷον περὶ τὰ χείλη· τὰ μὲν

γὰρ λεπτοχειλῆ ἐστιν, οἷον οἱ μύες, τὰ δὲ παχυχειλῆ, οἷον

30 τὰ λιμνόστρεα. Ἔτι τὰ μὲν κινητικὰ αὐτῶν ἐστιν, οἷον ὁ

κτείς (ἔνιοι γὰρ καὶ πέτεσθαι λέγουσι τοὺς κτένας, ἐπεὶ καὶ

ἐκ τοῦ ὀργάνου ᾧ θηρεύονται ἐξάλλονται πολλάκις), τὰ δ'

ἀκίνητά ἐστιν ἐκ τῆς προσφυῆς, οἷον ἡ πίννα. Τὰ δὲ στρομβώδη

1As compared with one another the testaceans present many diversities both in regard to their shells and to the flesh within. Some of them have no flesh at all, as the sea-urchin; others have flesh, but it is inside and wholly hidden, except the head, as in the land-snails, and the so-called 5cocalia, and, among pelagic animals, in the purple murex, the ceryx or trumpet-shell, the sea-snail, and the spiral-shaped testaceans in general. Of the rest, some are bivalved and some univalved; and by 'bivalves' I mean such as are enclosed within two shells, and by 'univalved' such as are enclosed within a single shell, and in these last the fleshy part is exposed, 10as in the case of the limpet. Of the bivalves, some can open out, like the scallop and the mussel; for all such shells are grown together on one side and are separate on the other, so as to open and shut. Other bivalves are closed on both sides alike, like the solen or razor-fish. Some testaceans there are, that are entirely enveloped in shell and expose no portion 15of their flesh outside, as the tethya or ascidians.
Again, in regard to the shells themselves, the testaceans present differences when compared with one another. Some are smooth-shelled, like the solen, the mussel, and some clams, viz. those that are nicknamed 'milkshells', while others are rough-shelled, such as the pool-oyster or edible oyster, the pinna, and 20certain species of cockles, and the trumpet shells; and of these some are ribbed, such as the scallop and a certain kind of clam or cockle, and some are devoid of ribs, as the pinna and another species of clam. Testaceans also differ from one another in regard to the thickness or thinness of their shell, both as regards the shell in its entirety and as regards specific 25parts of the shell, for instance, the lips; for some have thin-lipped shells, like the mussel, and others have thick-lipped shells, like the oyster. A property common to the above mentioned, and, in fact, to all testaceans, is the smoothness of their shells inside. Some also are capable of motion, like the scallop, and indeed some aver that scallops can actually 30fly, owing to the circumstance that they often jump right out of the apparatus by means of which they are caught; others are incapable of motion and are attached fast to some external object, as is the case with the pinna.

528b

1 πάντα κινεῖται καὶ ἕρπει· νέμεται δ' ἀπολυομένη

καὶ ἡ λεπάς. Κοινὸν δὲ καὶ τούτων καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν

σκληροστράκων τὸ λεῖον εἶναι ἐντὸς τὸ ὄστρακον. Τὸ δὲ σαρκῶδες τοῖς μὲν μονοθύροις

καὶ διθύροις προσπέφυκε τοῖς ὀστράκοις, ὥστε βίᾳ

5 ἀποσπᾶσθαι, τοῖς δὲ στρομβώδεσιν ἀπολέλυται μᾶλλον.

Ἴδιον δὲ τούτοις κατὰ τὸ ὄστρακον ὑπάρχει πᾶσι τὸ ἑλίκην

ἔχειν τὸ ὄστρακον τὸ ἔσχατον ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς. Ἔτι δ' ἐπίπτυγμα

πάντ' ἔχει ἐκ γενετῆς. Ἔστι δὲ πάντα τὰ στρομβώδη

τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων δεξιά, καὶ κινεῖται οὐκ ἐπὶ τὴν ἑλίκην

10 ἀλλ' ἐπὶ τὸ καταντικρύ. Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἔξωθεν μόρια τούτων τῶν

ζῴων τοιαύτας ἔχει τὰς διαφοράς· τῶν δ' ἐντὸς τρόπον μέν

τινα παραπλήσιος ἡ φύσις ἐστὶ πάντων, καὶ μάλιστα τῶν

στρομβωδῶν (μεγέθει γὰρ ἀλλήλων διαφέρει καὶ τοῖς καθ'

ὑπεροχὴν πάθεσιν), οὐ πολὺ δὲ διαφέρει οὐδὲ τὰ μονόθυρα

15 καὶ δίθυρα, συγκλειστὰ δέ· διαφορὰν γὰρ ἔχει πρὸς ἄλληλα

μὲν μικράν, πρὸς δὲ τὰ ἀκίνητα πλείω. Τοῦτο δ' ἔσται

φανερὸν ἐκ τῶν ὕστερον μᾶλλον. Ἡ δὲ φύσις τῶν στρομβοειδῶν

ἁπάντων ὁμοίως ἔχει, διαφέρει δ' ὥσπερ εἴρηται, καθ'

ὑπεροχήν (τὰ μὲν γὰρ μείζω μόρια καὶ ἐνδηλότερα ἔχει

20 αὐτῶν, τὰ δ' ἐλάττω τοὐναντίον), ἔτι δὲ σκληρότητι καὶ μαλακότητι

καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις τοῖς τοιούτοις πάθεσιν. Ἔχει γὰρ

πάντα τὴν μὲν ἐξωτάτω ἐν τῷ στόματι τοῦ ὀστράκου σάρκα

στιφράν, τὰ μὲν μᾶλλον τὰ δ' ἧττον. Ἐκ μέσου δὲ τούτου ἡ

κεφαλὴ καὶ κεράτια δύο· ταῦτα δ' ἐν μὲν τοῖς μείζοσι

25 μεγάλα, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐλάττοσι πάμπαν μικρά ἐστιν. Ἡ δὲ

κεφαλὴ ἐξέρχεται πᾶσι τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον· κἄν τι φοβηθῇ,

συσπᾶται πάλιν εἰς τὸ ἐντός. Ἔχει δὲ στόμα καὶ ὀδόντας

ἔνια, οἷον ὁ κοχλίας, ὀξεῖς καὶ μικροὺς καὶ λεπτούς. Ἔχουσι

δὲ καὶ προβοσκίδας, ὥσπερ καὶ αἱ μυῖαι· τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶ

30 γλωττοειδές. Ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ οἱ κήρυκες τοῦτο καὶ αἱ πορφύραι

στιφρόν, καὶ ὥσπερ οἱ μύωπες καὶ οἱ οἶστροι τὰ δέρματα

διατρυπῶσι τῶν τετραπόδων, ἔτι τὴν ἰσχὺν τοῦτ' ἔστι

σφοδρότερον· τῶν γὰρ δελεάτων τὰ ὄστρακα διατρυπῶσιν.

1All the spiral-shaped testaceans can move and creep, and even the limpet relaxes its hold to go in quest of food. In the case of the univalves and the bivalves, the fleshy substance adheres to the shell so tenaciously that it can only be removed by an effort; in the case of the stromboids, it is more 5loosely attached. And a peculiarity of all the stromboids is the spiral twist of the shell in the part farthest away from the head; they are also furnished from birth with an operculum. And, further, all stromboid testaceans have their shells on the right hand side, and move not in the direction of the spire, but the opposite way. Such are the diversities observed in the external 10parts of these animals.
The internal structure is almost the same in all these creatures, and in the stromboids especially; for it is in size that these latter differ from one another, and in accidents of the nature of excess or defect. And there is not much difference between most of the univalves and bivalves; but, while those that open and shut differ from one another but 15slightly, they differ considerably from such as are incapable of motion. And this will be illustrated more satisfactorily hereafter.
The spiral-shaped testaceans are all similarly constructed, but differ from one another, as has been said, in the way of excess or defect (for the larger species have larger and more conspicuous organs, and the smaller have smaller and less conspicuous), 20and, furthermore, in relative hardness or softness, and in other such accidents or properties. All the stromboids, for instance, have the flesh that extrudes from the mouth of the shell, hard and stiff; some more, and some less. From the middle of this protrudes the head and two horns, and these horns are large in the large species, but exceedingly minute in the smaller 25ones. The head protrudes from them all in the same way; and, if the animal be alarmed, the head draws in again. Some of these creatures have a mouth and teeth, as the snail; teeth sharp, and small, and delicate. They have also a proboscis just like that of the fly; and the proboscis is tongue-shaped. The ceryx and the purple murex have this organ firm and solid; and just as the 30myops, or horse-fly, and the oestrus, or gadfly, can pierce the skin of a quadruped, so is that proboscis proportionately stronger in these testaceans; for they bore right through the shells of other shell-fish on which they prey.

529a

1 Τοῦ δὲ στόματος ἔχεται εὐθὺς ἡ κοιλία. Ὁμοία δ' ἐστὶν ἡ

κοιλία προλόβῳ ὄρνιθος ἡ τῶν κόχλων. Κάτω δ' ἔχει δύο

λευκὰ στιφρά, ὅμοια μαστοῖς, οἷα ἐγγίνεται καὶ ἐν ταῖς

σηπίαις, πλὴν στιφρὰ ταῦτα μᾶλλον. Ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς κοιλίας

5 στόμαχος ἁπλοῦς μακρὸς μέχρι τῆς μήκωνος, ἥ ἐστιν ἐν τῷ

πυθμένι. Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν δῆλα καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν πορφυρῶν καὶ

τῶν κηρύκων ἐστὶν ἐν τῇ ἑλίκῃ τοῦ ὀστράκου. Τοῦ δὲ στομάχου τὸ

ἐχόμενόν ἐστιν ἔντερον· συνεχὲς δ' ὅ τε στόμαχος καὶ τὸ

ἔντερον, καὶ ἅπαν ἁπλοῦν μέχρι τῆς ἐξόδου. Ἡ δ' ἀρχὴ τοῦ

10 ἐντέρου περὶ τὴν ἑλίκην τῆς μήκωνος, καὶ ταύτῃ ἐστὶν εὐρύτερον

(ἔστι γὰρ ἡ μήκων οἱονεὶ περίττωμα πᾶσι τοῖς ὀστρακηροῖς

τὸ πολὺ αὐτῆς), εἶτ' ἐπικάμψαν ἄνω φέρεται πάλιν

πρὸς τὸ σαρκῶδες, καὶ ἡ τελευτὴ τοῦ ἐντέρου παρὰ τὴν κεφαλήν

ἐστιν, ᾗ ἀφιᾶσι τὸ περίττωμα, πᾶσιν ὁμοίως τοῖς

15 στρομβώδεσι καὶ τοῖς χερσαίοις καὶ τοῖς θαλαττίοις. Παρύφανται

δ' ἀπὸ τῆς κοιλίας τῷ στομάχῳ ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις

κόχλοις συνεχόμενος ὑμενίῳ μακρὸς πόρος καὶ λευκός,

ὅμοιος τὴν χρόαν τοῖς ἄνω μαστοειδέσιν· ἔχει δ' ἐντομὰς

ὥσπερ τὸ ἐν τῷ καράβῳ ᾠόν, πλὴν τὴν χρόαν τὸ μὲν λευκόν,

20 ἐκεῖνο δ' ἐρυθρόν. Ἔχει δ' οὐδεμίαν ἔξοδον τοῦτο οὐδὲ πόρον,

ἀλλ' ἐν ὑμένι ἐστὶ λεπτῷ, κοιλότητα ἔχον ἐν ἑαυτῷ στενήν.

Ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ ἐντέρου κάτω παρατείνει μέλανα καὶ τραχέα

συνεχῆ, οἷα καὶ ἐν ταῖς χελώναις, πλὴν ἧττον μέλανα.

Ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ οἱ θαλάττιοι κόχλοι ταῦτα καὶ τὰ λευκά,

25 πλὴν ἐλάττω οἱ ἐλάττους. Τὰ δὲ μονόθυρα καὶ δίθυρα τῇ

μὲν ὁμοίως ἔχει τούτοις τῇ δ' ἑτέρως. Κεφαλὴν μὲν γὰρ καὶ

κεράτια καὶ στόμα ἔχουσι καὶ τὸ γλωττοειδές· ἀλλ' ἐν μὲν

τοῖς ἐλάττοσι διὰ μικρότητα αὐτῶν ἄδηλα, τὰ δὲ καὶ ἐν

τεθνεῶσιν ἢ μὴ κινουμένοις οὐ δῆλα. Τὴν δὲ μήκωνα πάντα

30 ἔχει, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ οὐδ' ἴσην οὐδ' ὁμοίως φανεράν,

ἀλλ' αἱ μὲν λεπάδες κάτω ἐν τῷ βάθει, τὰ δὲ δίθυρα ἐν

τῷ γιγγλυμώδει. Καὶ τὰ τριχώδη πᾶσιν ὑπάρχει κύκλῳ

1The stomach follows close upon the mouth, and, by the way, this organ in the snail resembles a bird's crop. Underneath come two white firm formations, mastoid or papillary in form; and similar formations are found in the cuttle-fish also, only that they are of a firmer consistency in the cuttle-fish. After the stomach comes an oesophagus, 5simple and long, extending to the poppy or quasi-liver, which is in the innermost recess of the shell. All these statements may be verified in the case of the purple murex and the ceryx by observation within the whorl of the shell. What comes next to the oesophagus is the gut; in fact, the gut is continuous with the oesophagus, and runs its whole length uncomplicated to the outlet of the residuum. The gut has its 10point of origin in the region of the coil of the mecon, or so-called 'poppy', and is wider hereabouts (for remember, the mecon is for the most part a sort of excretion in all testaceans); it then takes a bend and runs up again towards the fleshy part, and terminates by the side of the head, where the animal discharges its residuum; and this holds good in the case of all stromboid testaceans, whether terrestrial or 15marine. From the stomach there is drawn in a parallel direction with the oesophagus, in the larger snails, a long white duct enveloped in a membrane, resembling in colour the mastoid formations higher up; and in it are nicks or interruptions, as in the egg-mass of the crawfish, only, by the way, the duct of which we are treating is white and the egg-mass of the crawfish is red. This formation has no outlet nor duct, but 20is enveloped in a thin membrane with a narrow cavity in its interior. And from the gut downward extend black and rough formations, in close connexion, something like the formations in the tortoise, only not so black. Marine snails, also, have these formations, and the white ones, only that the formations are smaller in the smaller species.
The non-spiral univalves and bivalves are in some respect similar in construction, 25and in some respects dissimilar, to the spiral testaceans. They all have a head and horns, and a mouth, and the organ resembling a tongue; but these organs, in the smaller species, are indiscernible owing to the minuteness of these animals, and some are indiscernible even in the larger species when dead, or when at rest and motionless. They all have the mecon, or poppy, but not all in the same place, nor of equal 30size, nor similarly open to observation; thus, the limpets have this organ deep down in the bottom of the shell, and the bivalves at the hinge connecting the two valves.

529b

1 τούτοις, οἷον καὶ τοῖς κτεσίν. Καὶ τὸ λεγόμενον ᾠὸν

τοῖς ἔχουσιν, ὅταν ἔχωσιν, ἐν τῷ ἐπὶ θάτερα κύκλῳ τῆς περιφερείας

ἐστίν, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸ λευκὸν τοῖς κόχλοις· καὶ γὰρ

ἐκείνοις τοῦτο ὅμοιον ὑπάρχει. Ἀλλὰ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα

5 μόρια, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ἐν μὲν τοῖς μεγάλοις δῆλά ἐστιν, ἐν

δὲ τοῖς μικροῖς ἢ οὐδὲν ἢ μόλις. Διὸ μάλιστα ἐν τοῖς μεγάλοις

κτεσὶ φανερά ἐστιν· οὗτοι δ' εἰσὶν οἱ τὴν ἑτέραν θυρίδα

πλατεῖαν ἔχοντες, οἷον ἐπίθεμα. Ἡ δὲ τοῦ περιττώματος

ἔξοδος τοῖς μὲν ἄλλοις ἐστὶν ἐκ πλαγίου· ἔστι γὰρ πόρος ᾗ

10 πορεύεται ἔξω· ἡ γὰρ μήκων, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, περίττωμά

ἐστι πᾶσιν ἐν ὑμένι. Τὸ δὲ καλούμενον ᾠὸν οὐκ ἔχει πόρον ἐν

οὐδενί, ἀλλ' αὐτῆς τῆς σαρκὸς ἐπανοιδεῖ· ἔστι δ' οὐκ ἐπὶ ταὐτὸ

τῷ ἐντέρῳ, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν ᾠὸν ἐν τοῖς δεξιοῖς, τὸ δ' ἔντερον

ἐν τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς. Τοῖς μὲν οὖν ἄλλοις τοιαύτη ἡ ἔξοδος

15 τῆς περιττώσεως, τῇ δ' ἀγρίᾳ λεπάδι, ἥν τινες καλοῦσι

θαλάττιον οὖς, ὑποκάτω τοῦ ὀστράκου ἡ περίττωσις ἐξέρχεται·

τετρύπηται γὰρ τὸ ὄστρακον. Φανερὰ δὲ καὶ ἡ κοιλία

μετὰ τὸ στόμα οὖσα ἐν ταύτῃ καὶ τὰ ᾠοειδῆ. Πάντα δὲ ταῦτα

τίνα τρόπον τῇ θέσει ἔχει, ἐκ τῶν ἀνατομῶν θεωρείσθω. Τὸ

20 δὲ καλούμενον καρκίνιον τρόπον μέν τινα κοινόν ἐστι τῶν τε

μαλακοστράκων καὶ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων. Αὐτὸ μὲν γὰρ τὴν

φύσιν ὅμοιον τοῖς καραβοειδέσι, καὶ γίνεται αὐτὸ καθ' αὑτό,

τῷ δ' εἰσδύεσθαι καὶ ζῆν ἐν ὀστράκῳ ὅμοιον τοῖς ὀστρακοδέρμοις,

ὥστε διὰ ταῦτα ἔοικεν ἐπαμφοτερίζειν. Τὴν δὲ μορφὴν

25 ὡς μὲν ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν ὅμοιόν ἐστι τοῖς ἀράχναις, πλὴν

τὸ κάτω τῆς κεφαλῆς καὶ τοῦ θώρακος μεῖζον ἔχει ἐκείνου.

Ἔχει δὲ κεράτια δύο λεπτὰ πυρρά, καὶ ὀφθαλμοὺς ὑποκάτω

τούτων δύο μακρούς, οὐκ εἰσδυομένους οὐδὲ κατακλινομένους

ὥσπερ οἱ τῶν καρκίνων ἀλλ' ὀρθούς, ὑποκάτω δὲ τούτων

30 τὸ στόμα καὶ περὶ αὐτὸ καθαπερεὶ τριχώδη ἄττα πλείω,

τούτων δ' ἐχομένους δύο πόδας δικρόους, οἷς προσάγεται, καὶ

ἄλλους ἐφ' ἑκάτερα δύο, καὶ τρίτον μικρόν. Τὸ δὲ κάτω τοῦ

1They also have in all cases the hairy growths or beards, in a circular form, as in the scallops. And, with regard to the so-called 'egg', in those that have it, when they have it, it is situated in one of the semi-circles of the periphery, as is the case with the white formation in 5the snail; for this white formation in the snail corresponds to the so-called egg of which we are speaking. But all these organs, as has been stated, are distinctly traceable in the larger species, while in the small ones they are in some cases almost, and in others altogether, indiscernible. Hence they are most plainly visible in the large scallops; 10and these are the bivalves that have one valve flat-shaped, like the lid of a pot. The outlet of the excretion is in all these animals (save for the exception to be afterwards related) on one side; for there is a passage whereby the excretion passes out. (And, remember, the mecon or poppy, as has been stated, is an excretion in all these animals-an 15excretion enveloped in a membrane.) The so-called egg has no outlet in any of these creatures, but is merely an excrescence in the fleshy mass; and it is not situated in the same region with the gut, but the 'egg' is situated on the right-hand side and the gut on the left. Such are the relations of the anal vent in most of these animals; but in the 20case of the wild limpet (called by some the 'sea-ear'), the residuum issues beneath the shell, for the shell is perforated to give an outlet. In this particular limpet the stomach is seen coming after the mouth, and the egg-shaped formations are discernible. But for the relative positions of these parts you are referred to my Treatise on Anatomy.
The 25so-called carcinium or hermit crab is in a way intermediate between the crustaceans and the testaceans. In its nature it resembles the crawfish kind, and it is born simple of itself, but by its habit of introducing itself into a shell and living there it resembles the testaceans, and so appears to partake of the characters of both kinds. In shape, to 30give a simple illustration, it resembles a spider, only that the part below the head and thorax is larger in this creature than in the spider.

530a

1 θώρακος μαλακὸν ἅπαν ἐστὶ καὶ διοιγόμενον ὠχρὸν

ἔνδοθεν. Ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ στόματος πόρος εἷς ἄχρι τῆς κοιλίας·

τῆς δὲ περιττώσεως οὐ δῆλος ὁ πόρος. Οἱ δὲ πόδες καὶ ὁ θώραξ

σκληρὰ μέν, ἧττον δ' ἢ τῶν καρκίνων. Πρόσφυσιν δ' οὐκ

5 ἔχει πρὸς τὰ ὄστρακα ὥσπερ αἱ πορφύραι καὶ οἱ κήρυκες,

ἀλλ' εὐαπόλυτόν ἐστιν. Προμηκέστερα δ' ἐστὶ τὰ ἐν τοῖς στρόμβοις

τῶν ἐν τοῖς νηρείταις. Ἕτερον δὲ γένος ἐστὶ τὸ τῶν νηρειτῶν,

τὰ μὲν ἄλλα παραπλήσιον, τῶν δὲ δικρόων ποδῶν τὸν

μὲν δεξιὸν ἔχει μικρὸν τὸν δ' ἀριστερὸν μέγαν, καὶ ποιεῖται

10 τὴν βάδισιν μᾶλλον ἐπὶ τούτῳ. Λαμβάνεται δὲ καὶ ἐν ταῖς

κόγχαις τοιοῦτον, ὧν ἐστιν ἡ πρόσφυσις παραπλησία, καὶ ἐν

τοῖς ἄλλοις. Τοῦτον δὲ καλοῦσι κύλλαρον. Ὁ δὲ νηρείτης τὸ

μὲν ὄστρακον ἔχει λεῖον καὶ μέγα καὶ στρογγύλον, τὴν δὲ

μορφὴν παραπλησίαν τοῖς κήρυξι, πλὴν οὐχ ὥσπερ ἐκεῖνοι

15 τὴν μήκωνα μέλαιναν ἀλλ' ἐρυθράν· προσπέφυκε δὲ νεανικῶς

κατὰ τὸ μέσον. Ἐν μὲν οὖν ταῖς εὐδίαις ἀπολυόμενα

νέμεται ταῦτα, πνευμάτων δ' ὄντων τὰ μὲν καρκίνια ἡσυχάζει

πρὸς τοῖς λίθοις, οἱ δὲ νηρεῖται προσέχονται καθάπερ

αἱ λεπάδες· ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ αἱ αἱμορροΐδες καὶ πᾶν

20 τὸ τοιοῦτον γένος. Προσφύονται δὲ ταῖς πέτραις, ὅταν ἀποκλίνωσι

τὸ ἐπικάλυμμα· τοῦτο γὰρ ἔοικεν εἶναι ὡσπερεὶ πῶμα·

ὃ γὰρ τοῖς διθύροις ἄμφω, τοῦτο τοῖς στρομβώδεσι τὸ

ἕτερον μέρος. Τὸ δ' ἐντὸς σαρκῶδές ἐστι, καὶ ἐν τούτῳ τὸ στόμα.

Τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον ἔχει ταῖς αἱμορροΐσι καὶ ταῖς

25 πορφύραις καὶ πᾶσι τοῖς τοιούτοις. Ὅσα δ' ἔχει μείζω τὸν

ἀριστερὸν πόδα, ταῦτα ἐν μὲν τοῖς στρόμβοις οὐκ ἐγγίνεται,

ἐν δὲ τοῖς νηρείταις ἐγγίνεται. Εἰσὶ δέ τινες κόχλοι οἳ ἔχουσιν

ἐν ἑαυτοῖς ὅμοια ζῷα τοῖς ἀστακοῖς τοῖς μικροῖς, οἳ γίνονται

καὶ ἐν τοῖς ποταμοῖς· διαφέρουσι δ' αὐτῶν τῷ μαλακὸν

30 ἔχειν τὸ ἔσω τοῦ ὀστράκου. Τὴν δ' ἰδέαν οἷοί εἰσιν, ἐκ τῶν

ἀνατομῶν θεωρείσθωσαν.

1It has two thin red horns, and underneath these horns two long eyes, not retreating inwards, nor turning sideways like the eyes of the crab, but protruding straight out; and underneath these eyes the mouth, and round about the mouth several hair-like growths, and next after these two bifurcate legs or claws, whereby it draws in objects 5towards itself, and two other legs on either side, and a third small one. All below the thorax is soft, and when opened in dissection is found to be sallow-coloured within. From the mouth there runs a single passage right on to the stomach, but the passage for the excretions is not discernible. The legs and the thorax are hard, but not so hard as the legs and the thorax of the crab. It does not adhere to its shell like the 10purple murex and the ceryx, but can easily slip out of it. It is longer when found in the shell of the stromboids than when found in the shell of the neritae.
And, by the way, the animal found in the shell of the neritae is a separate species, like to the other in most respects; but of its bifurcate feet or claws, the right-hand one is small and the left-hand one is large, and it progresses chiefly by the aid of this latter 15and larger one. (In the shells of these animals, and in certain others, there is found a parasite whose mode of attachment is similar. The particular one which we have just described is named the cyllarus.)
The nerites has a smooth large round shell, and resembles the ceryx in shape, only the poppy-juice is, in its case, not black but red. It clings with great force near the middle. In calm weather, then, they go free 20afield, but when the wind blows the carcinia take shelter against the rocks: the neritae themselves cling fast like limpets; and the same is the case with the haemorrhoid or aporrhaid and all others of the like kind. And, by the way, they cling to the rock, when they turn back their operculum, for this operculum seems like a lid; in fact this structure represents the one part, in the stromboids, of that which in the bivalves 25is a duplicate shell. The interior of the animal is fleshy, and the mouth is inside. And it is the same with the haemorrhoid, the purple murex, and all suchlike animals.
Such of the little crabs as have the left foot or claw the bigger of the two are found in the neritae, but not in the stromboids. are some snail-shells which have inside them creatures resembling those little crayfish that are also found in fresh water. 30These creatures, however, differ in having the part inside the shells But as to the characters, you are referred to my Treatise on Anatomy.

Book 4,Chapter 5 (530a32–531a7)

Οἱ δ' ἐχῖνοι τὸ μὲν σαρκῶδες οὐκ ἔχουσιν, ἀλλ' ἴδιον

αὐτῶν τοῦτ' ἔστιν· ἐστέρηνται γὰρ πάντες, καὶ οὐκ ἔχουσι σάρκα

ἐντὸς οὐδεμίαν· τὰ δὲ μέλανα πάντες. Ἔστι δὲ γένη πλείω

The urchins are devoid of flesh, and this is a character peculiar to them; and while they are in all cases empty and devoid of any flesh within, they are in all cases furnished with the black formations.

530b

1 τῶν ἐχίνων, ἓν μὲν τὸ ἐσθιόμενον· τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶν ἐν ᾧ τὰ

καλούμενα ᾠὰ μεγάλα ἐγγίνεται καὶ ἐδώδιμα, ὁμοίως ἐν μείζοσι

καὶ ἐλάττοσιν· καὶ γὰρ εὐθὺς ἔτι μικροὶ ὄντες ἔχουσι

ταῦτα. Ἄλλα δὲ δύο γένη τό τε τῶν σπατάγγων καὶ τὸ

5 τῶν καλουμένων βρύσσων· γίνονται δ' οὗτοι πελάγιοι καὶ

σπάνιοι. Ἔτι αἱ ἐχινομῆτραι καλούμεναι, μεγέθει πάντων

μέγισται. Πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ἄλλο γένος μεγέθει μὲν μικρόν,

ἀκάνθας δὲ μεγάλας ἔχει καὶ σκληράς, γίνεται δ' ἐκ τῆς

θαλάττης ἐν πολλαῖς ὀργυιαῖς, ᾧ χρῶνται πρὸς τὰς στραγγουρίας

10 τινές. Περὶ δὲ Τορώνην εἰσὶν ἐχῖνοι λευκοὶ θαλάττιοι

καὶ τὰ ὄστρακα καὶ τὰς ἀκάνθας καὶ τὰ ᾠά, μείζους δὲ

τῶν ἄλλων εἰς μῆκος· ἡ δ' ἄκανθα οὐ μεγάλη οὐδ' ἰσχυρὰ

ἀλλὰ μαλακωτέρα, τὰ δὲ μέλανα τὰ ἀπὸ τοῦ στόματος

πλείω, καὶ πρὸς μὲν τὸν ἔξω πόρον συνάπτοντα πρὸς ἑαυτὰ

15 δὲ ἀσύναπτα· τούτοις δ' ὥσπερ διειλημμένος ἐστίν. Κινοῦνται

δὲ μάλιστα καὶ πλειστάκις οἱ ἐδώδιμοι αὐτῶν· καὶ

σημεῖον δ' <ὅτι> ἀεί τι ἔχουσιν ἐπὶ ταῖς ἀκάνθαις. Ἔχουσι μὲν οὖν ἅπαντες

ᾠά, ἀλλ' ἔνιοι πάμπαν μικρὰ καὶ οὐκ ἐδώδιμα. Συμβαίνει

δὲ τὴν μὲν λεγομένην κεφαλὴν καὶ τὸ στόμα τὸν ἐχῖνον

20 κάτω ἔχειν, ᾗ δ' ἀφίησι τὸ περίττωμα, ἄνω. Ταὐτὸ

δὲ τοῦτο συμβέβηκε τοῖς τε στρομβώδεσι πᾶσι καὶ ταῖς

λεπάσιν· ἡ γὰρ νομὴ ἐκ τῶν κάτωθεν, ὥστε τὸ μὲν στόμα

πρὸς τῇ νομῇ, τὸ δὲ περίττωμα ἄνω πρὸς τοῖς πρανέσι τοῦ

ὀστράκου. Ἔχει δ' ὁ ἐχῖνος ὀδόντας πέντε κοίλους ἔνδοθεν, ἐν

25 μέσῳ δὲ τούτων σῶμα σαρκῶδες ἀντὶ γλώττης. Τούτου δ'

ἔχεται ὁ στόμαχος, εἶτα ἡ κοιλία εἰς πέντε μέρη διῃρημένη,

πλήρης περιττώματος· συνέχουσι δὲ πάντες οἱ κόλποι αὐτῆς

εἰς ἓν πρὸς τὴν ἔξοδον τῆς περιττώσεως, ᾗ τετρύπηται τὸ

ὄστρακον. Ὑπὸ δὲ τὴν κοιλίαν ἐν ἄλλῳ ὑμένι τὰ καλούμενα

30 ᾠά ἐστιν, ἴσα τὸν ἀριθμὸν ὄντα ἐν ἅπασιν (πέντε γάρ ἐστι τὸ

πλῆθος) καὶ περιττά. Ἄνω δὲ τὰ μέλανα ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς

τῶν ὀδόντων ἤρτηται, ἅ ἐστι πικρὰ καὶ οὐκ ἐδώδιμα. Ἐν πολλοῖς

δὲ τῶν ζῴων τὸ τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν ἢ τὸ ἀνάλογον· καὶ γὰρ

ἐν ταῖς χελώναις καὶ φρύναις καὶ βατράχοις καὶ ἐν

1There are several species of the urchin, and one of these is that which is made use of for food; this is the kind in which are found the so-called eggs, large and edible, in the larger and smaller specimens alike; for even when as yet very small they are provided with them. There are two other 5species, the spatangus, and the so-called bryssus, these animals are pelagic and scarce. Further, there are the echinometrae, or 'mother-urchins', the largest in size of all the species. In addition to these there is another species, small in size, but furnished with large hard spines; it lives in the sea at a depth of several fathoms; and is used by some people as 10a specific for cases of strangury. In the neighbourhood of Torone there are sea-urchins of a white colour, shells, spines, eggs and all, and that are longer than the ordinary sea-urchin. The spine in this species is not large nor strong, but rather limp; and the black formations in connexion with the mouth are more than usually numerous, and communicate with the 15external duct, but not with one another; in point of fact, the animal is in a manner divided up by them. The edible urchin moves with greatest freedom and most often; and this is indicated by the fact that these urchins have always something or other on their spines.
All urchins are supplied with eggs, but in some of the species the eggs are exceedingly small and 20unfit for food. Singularly enough, the urchin has what we may call its head and mouth down below, and a place for the issue of the residuum up above; (and this same property is common to all stromboids and to limpets). For the food on which the creature lives lies down below; consequently the mouth has a position well adapted for getting at the food, and the excretion 25is above, near to the back of the shell. The urchin has, also, five hollow teeth inside, and in the middle of these teeth a fleshy substance serving the office of a tongue. Next to this comes the oesophagus, and then the stomach, divided into five parts, and filled with excretion, all the five parts uniting at the anal vent, where the shell is perforated for an 30outlet. Underneath the stomach, in another membrane, are the so-called eggs, identical in number in all cases, and that number is always an odd number, to wit five. Up above, the black formations are attached to the starting-point of the teeth, and they are bitter to the taste, and unfit for food.

531a

1 τοῖς στρομβώδεσι καὶ τοῖς μαλακίοις· ἀλλὰ τῷ χρώματι

διαφέρει, καὶ ἄβρωτά ἐστιν ἐν πᾶσι τὰ τοιαῦτα ἢ πάμπαν

ἢ μᾶλλον. Κατὰ μὲν οὖν τὴν ἀρχὴν καὶ τελευτὴν συνεχὲς

τοῦ ἐχίνου τὸ στόμα ἐστί, κατὰ δὲ τὴν ἐπιφάνειαν οὐ συνεχὲς

5 ἀλλ' ὅμοιον λαμπτῆρι μὴ ἔχοντι τὸ κύκλῳ δέρμα. Ταῖς δ'

ἀκάνθαις χρῆται ὁ ἐχῖνος ὡς ποσίν· ταύταις γὰρ ἐπερειδόμενος

καὶ κινούμενος μεταβάλλει τὸν τόπον.

1A similar or at least an analogous formation is found in many animals; as, for instance, in the tortoise, the toad, the frog, the stromboids, and, generally, in the molluscs; but the formation varies here and there in colour, and in all cases is altogether uneatable, or more or less unpalatable. In reality the 5mouth-apparatus of the urchin is continuous from one end to the other, but to outward appearance it is not so, but looks like a horn lantern with the panes of horn left out. The urchin uses its spines as feet; for it rests its weight on these, and then moving shifts from place to place.

Book 4,Chapter 6 (531a8–531b19)

Τὰ δὲ καλούμενα τήθυα τούτων πάντων ἔχει τὴν φύσιν

περιττοτάτην. Κέκρυπται γὰρ αὐτῶν μόνων τὸ σῶμα ἐν τῷ

10 ὀστράκῳ πᾶν, τὸ δ' ὄστρακόν ἐστι μεταξὺ δέρματος καὶ ὀςτράκου,

διὸ καὶ τέμνεται ὥσπερ βύρσα σκληρά. Προσπέφυκε

μὲν οὖν ταῖς πέτραις τῷ ὀστρακώδει, δύο δ' ἔχει πόρους ἀπέχοντας

ἀπ' ἀλλήλων, πάμπαν μικροὺς καὶ οὐ ῥᾳδίους ἰδεῖν,

ᾗ ἀφίησι καὶ δέχεται τὸ ὑγρόν· περίττωμα γὰρ οὐδὲν ἔχει

15 φανερόν, ὥσπερ τῶν ἄλλων ὀστρέων τὰ μὲν ὥσπερ ἐχῖνος,

τὰ δὲ τὴν καλουμένην μήκωνα. Ἀνοιχθέντα δ' ἔσωθεν πρῶτον

μὲν ὑμένα ἔχει νευρώδη περὶ τὸ ὀστρακῶδες· ἐν δὲ τούτῳ

αὐτό ἐστι τὸ σαρκῶδες τοῦ τηθύου, οὐδενὶ ὅμοιον τῶν ἄλλων·

αὕτη μέντοι ἡ σὰρξ πᾶσα ὁμοία. Προσπέφυκε δὲ τοῦτο

20 κατὰ δύο τόπους τῷ ὑμένι καὶ τῷ δέρματι ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου· καὶ

ᾗ προσπέφυκε, ταύτῃ ἐστὶ στενότερον ἐφ' ἑκάτερα, οἷς τείνει

πρὸς τοὺς πόρους τοὺς ἔξω διὰ τοῦ ὀστράκου φέροντας, ᾗ ἀφίησι

καὶ δέχεται τὴν τροφὴν καὶ τὸ ὑγρόν, ὡς ἂν εἰ τὸ μὲν

στόμα εἴη, τὸ δὲ τῇ περιττώσει ἔξοδος· καὶ ἔστιν αὐτῶν τὸ

25 μὲν παχύτερον τὸ δὲ λεπτότερον. Ἔσω δὲ κοῖλον ἐφ' ἑκάτερα,

καὶ διείργει μικρόν τι συνεχές· ἐν θατέρῳ δὲ τῶν

κοίλων ἡ ὑγρότης ἐγγίνεται. Ἄλλο δ' οὐδὲν ἔχει μόριον οὔτε

ὀργανικὸν οὔτε αἰσθητήριον οὔτε, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη πρότερον ἐν

τοῖς ἄλλοις, τὸ περιττωματικόν. Χρῶμα δὲ τοῦ τηθύου ἐστὶ

30 τὸ μὲν ὠχρὸν τὸ δ' ἐρυθρόν.

Ἔστι δὲ καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀκαληφῶν γένος ἴδιον· προσπέφυκε

μὲν γὰρ ταῖς πέτραις ὥσπερ ἔνια τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων,

ἀπολύεται δ' ἐνίοτε. Οὐκ ἔχει δ' ὄστρακον, ἀλλὰ σαρκῶδες

The so-called tethyum or ascidian has of all these animals the most remarkable characteristics. It is 10the only mollusc that has its entire body concealed within its shell, and the shell is a substance intermediate between hide and shell, so that it cuts like a piece of hard leather. It is attached to rocks by its shell, and is provided with two passages placed at a distance from one another, very minute and hard to see, whereby it admits and discharges the sea-water; for it has no 15visible excretion (whereas of shell fish in general some resemble the urchin in this matter of excretion, and others are provided with the so-called mecon, or poppy-juice). If the animal be opened, it is found to have, in the first place, a tendinous membrane running round inside the shell-like substance, and within this membrane is the flesh-like substance of the ascidian, not resembling 20that in other molluscs; but this flesh, to which I now allude, is the same in all ascidia. And this substance is attached in two places to the membrane and the skin, obliquely; and at the point of attachment the space is narrowed from side to side, where the fleshy substance stretches towards the passages that lead outwards through the shell; and here it discharges and admits food and 25liquid matter, just as it would if one of the passages were a mouth and the other an anal vent; and one of the passages is somewhat wider than the other Inside it has a pair of cavities, one on either side, a small partition separating them; and one of these two cavities contains the liquid. The creature has no other organ whether motor or sensory, nor, as was said in the case of the others, 30is it furnished with any organ connected with excretion, as other shell-fish are. The colour of the ascidian is in some cases sallow, and in other cases red.
There is, furthermore, the genus of the sea-nettles, peculiar in its way.

531b

1 τὸ σῶμα πᾶν ἐστιν αὐτῆς. Αἰσθάνεται δὲ καὶ συναρπάζει

προσφερομένης τῆς χειρὸς καὶ προσέχεται, καθάπερ ὁ πολύπους

ταῖς πλεκτάναις, οὕτως ὥστε τὴν σάρκα ἐπανοιδεῖν.

Ἔχει δὲ τὸ στόμα ἐν μέσῳ, καὶ ζῇ ἀπὸ τῆς πέτρας ὥσπερ

5 ἀπ' ὀστρέου. Κἄν τι προσπέσῃ τῶν μικρῶν ἰχθυδίων, ἀντέχεται

ὥσπερ τῆς χειρός· οὕτω κἄν τι προσπέσῃ αὐτῇ ἐδώδιμον,

κατεσθίει. Καὶ ἀπολύεται δὲ γένος τι αὐτῶν, ὃ ἐάν τι

προσπέσῃ κατεσθίει καὶ ἐχίνους καὶ κτένας. Περίττωμα δὲ

παντελῶς οὐδὲν φαίνεται ἔχουσα, ἀλλ' ὁμοία κατὰ τοῦτο τοῖς

10 φυτοῖς ἐστιν. Γένη δὲ τῶν ἀκαληφῶν ἐστι δύο, αἱ μὲν ἐλάττους

καὶ ἐδώδιμοι μᾶλλον, αἱ δὲ μεγάλαι καὶ σκληραί,

οἷαι γίνονται καὶ περὶ Χαλκίδα. Τοῦ μὲν οὖν χειμῶνος τὴν

σάρκα στιφρὰν ἔχουσι (διὸ καὶ θηρεύονται καὶ ἐδώδιμοί εἰσι),

τοῦ δὲ θέρους ἀπόλλυνται· γίνονται γὰρ μαδαραί, καὶ ἐάν τις

15 θίγῃ, διασπῶνται ταχέως καὶ ὅλαι ἀφαιρεῖσθαι οὐ

δύνανται, πονοῦσαί τε ταῖς ἀλέαις εἰς τὰς πέτρας εἰσδύονται

μᾶλλον.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν μαλακίων καὶ τῶν μαλακοστράκων

καὶ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων, ὅσα τ' ἔχουσιν μέρη ἐκτὸς καὶ ὅσα

20 ἐντός, εἴρηται.

1The sea-nettle, or sea-anemone, clings to rocks like certain of the testaceans, but at times relaxes its hold. It has no shell, but its entire body is fleshy. It is sensitive to touch, and, if you put your hand to it, it will seize and cling to it, as the cuttlefish would do with its feelers, and in such a way as to make 5the flesh of your hand swell up. Its mouth is in the centre of its body, and it lives adhering to the rock as an oyster to its shell. If any little fish come up against it it it clings to it; in fact, just as I described it above as doing to your hand, so it does to anything edible that comes in its way; and it feeds upon sea-urchins and scallops. Another species of the sea-nettle roams freely 10abroad. The sea-nettle appears to be devoid altogether of excretion, and in this respect it resembles a plant.
Of sea-nettles there are two species, the lesser and more edible, and the large hard ones, such as are found in the neighbourhood of Chalcis. In winter time their flesh is firm, and accordingly they are sought after as articles of food, but in summer weather they are worthless, for they become 15thin and watery, and if you catch at them they break at once into bits, and cannot be taken off the rocks entire; and being oppressed by the heat they tend to slip back into the crevices of the rocks.
So much for the external and the internal organs of molluscs, crustaceans, and testaceans.

Book 4,Chapter 7 (531b20–532b28)

Περὶ δὲ τῶν ἐντόμων λεκτέον τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον.

Ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο τὸ γένος πολλὰ εἴδη ἔχον ἐν ἑαυτῷ, καὶ

ἐνίοις πρὸς ἄλληλα συγγενικοῖς οὖσιν οὐκ ἐπέζευκται κοινὸν

ὄνομα οὐδέν, οἷον ἐπὶ μελίττῃ καὶ ἀνθρήνῃ καὶ σφηκὶ καὶ πᾶσι

τοῖς τοιούτοις, καὶ πάλιν ὅσα τὸ πτερὸν ἔχει ἐν κολεῷ, οἷον

25 μηλολόνθη καὶ κάραβος καὶ κανθαρὶς καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα ἄλλα.

Πάντων μὲν οὖν κοινὰ μέρη ἐστὶ τρία, κεφαλή τε καὶ τὸ

περὶ τὴν κοιλίαν κύτος καὶ τρίτον τὸ μεταξὺ τούτων, οἷον

τοῖς ἄλλοις τὸ στῆθος καὶ τὸ νῶτόν ἐστιν. Τοῦτο δὲ τοῖς μὲν

πολλοῖς ἕν ἐστιν· ὅσα δὲ μακρὰ καὶ πολύποδα, σχεδὸν

30 ἴσα ταῖς ἐντομαῖς ἔχει τὰ μεταξύ. Πάντα δ' ἔχει διαιρούμενα

ζωὴν τὰ ἔντομα, πλὴν ὅσα ἢ λίαν κατέψυκται ἢ διὰ μικρότητα

ταχὺ καταψύχεται, ἐπεὶ καὶ οἱ σφῆκες διαιρεθέντες

ζῶσιν. Μετὰ μὲν οὖν τοῦ μέσου καὶ ἡ κεφαλὴ καὶ ἡ

We now proceed to treat of insects in like manner. This genus comprises many species, and, though several 20kinds are clearly related to one another, these are not classified under one common designation, as in the case of the bee, the drone, the wasp, and all such insects, and again as in the case of those that have their wings in a sheath or shard, like the cockchafer, the carabus or stag-beetle, the cantharis or blister-beetle, and the like.
Insects have three parts common to them all; the head, the 25trunk containing the stomach, and a third part in betwixt these two, corresponding to what in other creatures embraces chest and back. In the majority of insects this intermediate part is single; but in the long and multipedal insects it has practically the same number of segments as of nicks.
All insects when cut in two continue to live, excepting such as are naturally cold by nature, or such as from 30their minute size chill rapidly; though, by the way, wasps notwithstanding their small size continue living after severance. In conjunction with the middle portion either the head or the stomach can live, but the head cannot live by itself.

532a

1 κοιλία ζῇ, ἄνευ δὲ τούτου ἡ κεφαλὴ οὐ ζῇ. Ὅσα δὲ μακρὰ

καὶ πολύποδά ἐστι, πολὺν χρόνον ζῇ διαιρούμενα, καὶ κινεῖται

τὸ ἀποτμηθὲν ἐπ' ἀμφότερα τὰ ἔσχατα· καὶ γὰρ ἐπὶ

τὴν τομὴν πορεύεται καὶ ἐπὶ τὴν οὐράν, οἷον ἡ καλουμένη

5 σκολόπενδρα. Ἔχει δ' ὀφθαλμοὺς μὲν ἅπαντα, ἄλλο δ' αἰσθητήριον

οὐδὲν φανερόν, πλὴν ἔνια οἷον γλῶτταν (ἣν καὶ τὰ

ὀστρακόδερμα ἔχει πάντα), ᾗ καὶ γεύεται καὶ εἰς αὐτὸ τὴν

τροφὴν ἀνασπᾷ. Τοῦτο δὲ τοῖς μὲν μαλακόν ἐστι, τοῖς δ' ἔχει

ἰσχὺν πολλήν, ὥσπερ ταῖς πορφύραις. Καὶ οἱ μύωπες δὲ

10 καὶ οἱ οἶστροι ἰσχυρὸν τοῦτ' ἔχουσι, καὶ τἆλλα σχεδὸν τὰ

πλεῖστα· ἐν πᾶσι γὰρ τοῖς μὴ ὀπισθοκέντροις τοῦτο ὥσπερ

ὅπλον ἔχει ἕκαστον. Ὅσα δ' ἔχει τοῦτο, ὀδόντας οὐκ ἔχει,

ἔξω ὀλίγων τινῶν, ἐπεὶ καὶ αἱ μυῖαι τούτῳ θιγγάνουσαι αἱματίζουσι

καὶ οἱ κώνωπες τούτῳ κεντοῦσιν. Ἔχουσι δ' ἔνια τῶν

15 ἐντόμων καὶ κέντρα. Τὸ δὲ κέντρον τὰ μὲν ἔχει ἐν αὑτοῖς,

οἷον αἱ μέλιτται καὶ οἱ σφῆκες, τὰ δ' ἐκτός, οἷον σκορπίος·

καὶ μόνον δὴ τοῦτο τῶν ἐντόμων μακρόκεντρόν ἐστιν.

Ἔτι δὲ χηλὰς ἔχει τοῦτό τε καὶ τὸ ἐν τοῖς βιβλίοις γινόμενον

σκορπιῶδες. Τὰ δὲ πτηνὰ αὐτῶν πρὸς τοῖς ἄλλοις

20 μορίοις καὶ πτερὰ ἔχει. Ἔστι δὲ τὰ μὲν δίπτερα αὐτῶν,

ὥσπερ αἱ μυῖαι, τὰ δὲ τετράπτερα, ὥσπερ αἱ μέλιτται·

οὐθὲν δ' ἐστὶν ὀπισθόκεντρον δίπτερον μόνον. Ἔτι δὲ τὰ μὲν ἔχει

τῶν πτηνῶν ἔλυτρον τοῖς πτεροῖς, ὥσπερ ἡ μηλολόνθη, τὰ

δ' ἀνέλυτρά ἐστιν, ὥσπερ ἡ μέλιττα· ἀνορροπύγιος δ' ἡ

25 πτῆσις αὐτῶν ἁπάντων ἐστί, καὶ τὸ πτερὸν οὐκ ἔχει καυλὸν

οὐδὲ σχίσιν. Ἔτι κεραίας πρὸ τῶν ὀμμάτων ἔχει ἔνια,

οἷον αἵ τε ψυχαὶ καὶ οἱ κάραβοι. Ὅσα δὲ πηδητικὰ αὐτῶν

ἐστι, τούτων τὰ μὲν ἔχει τὰ ὄπισθεν σκέλη μείζω, τὰ δὲ

πηδάλια καμπτόμενα εἰς τοὔπισθεν ὥσπερ τὰ τῶν τετραπόδων

30 σκέλη. Πάντα δ' ἔχει τὰ πρανῆ πρὸς τὰ ὕπτια διάφορα,

ὥσπερ καὶ τἆλλα ζῷα. Ἡ δὲ τοῦ σώματος σὰρξ

οὔτ' ὀστρακώδης ἐστὶν οὔθ' οἷον τὸ ἐντὸς τῶν ὀστρακωδῶν, οὔτε

σαρκώδης, ἀλλὰ μεταξύ. Διὸ καὶ οὔτ' ἄκανθαν ἔχουσιν οὔτ'

1Insects that are long in shape and many-footed can live for a long while after being cut in twain, and the severed portions can move in either direction, backwards or forwards; thus, the hinder portion, if cut off, can crawl either in the direction of the section or in the direction of the tail, as is observed in the 5scolopendra.
All insects have eyes, but no other organ of sense discernible, except that some insects have a kind of a tongue corresponding to a similar organ common to all testaceans; and by this organ such insects taste and imbibe their food. In some insects this organ is soft; in other insects it is firm; as it is, by the way, in the purple-fish, among testaceans. In the horsefly and the gadfly this 10organ is hard, and indeed it is hard in most insects. In point of fact, such insects as have no sting in the rear use this organ as a weapon, (and, by the way, such insects as are provided with this organ are unprovided with teeth, with the exception of a few insects); the fly by a touch can draw blood with this organ, and the gnat can prick or sting with it.
Certain insects are furnished with 15prickers or stings. Some insects have the sting inside, as the bee and the wasp, others outside, as the scorpion; and, by the way, this is the only insect furnished with a long tail. And, further, the scorpion is furnished with claws, as is also the creature resembling a scorpion found within the pages of books.
In addition to their other organs, flying insects are furnished with wings. Some insects are 20dipterous or double-winged, as the fly; others are tetrapterous or furnished with four wings, as the bee; and, by the way, no insect with only two wings has a sting in the rear. Again, some winged insects have a sheath or shard for their wings, as the cockchafer; whereas in others the wings are unsheathed, as in the bee. But in the case of all alike, flight is in no way modified by tail-steerage, 25and the wing is devoid of quill-structure or division of any kind.
Again, some insects have antennae in front of their eyes, as the butterfly and the horned beetle. Such of them as have the power of jumping have the hinder legs the longer; and these long hind-legs whereby they jump bend backwards like the hind-legs of quadrupeds. All insects have the belly different from the back; as, in fact, is the 30case with all animals. The flesh of an insect's body is neither shell-like nor is it like the internal substance of shell-covered animals, nor is it like flesh in the ordinary sense of the term; but it is a something intermediate in quality.

532b

1 ὀστοῦν οὔθ' οἷον σήπιον οὔτε κύκλῳ ὄστρακον· αὐτὸ γὰρ

αὑτὸ τὸ σῶμα διὰ τὴν σκληρότητα σώζει, καὶ οὐ προσδεῖται ἑτέρου

ἐρείσματος. Δέρμα δ' ἔχουσι μέν, πάμπαν δὲ τοῦτο

λεπτόν. Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἔξωθεν αὐτῶν μόρια ταῦτα καὶ τοιαῦτ'

5 ἐστίν, ἐντὸς δ' εὐθὺς μετὰ τὸ στόμα ἔντερον τοῖς μὲν πλείστοις

εὐθὺ καὶ ἁπλοῦν μέχρι τῆς ἐξόδου ἐστίν, ὀλίγοις δ'

ἑλιγμὸν ἔχει. Σπλάγχνον δ' οὐδὲν ἔχει τῶν τοιούτων οὐδὲ

πιμελήν, ὥσπερ οὐδ' ἄλλο τῶν ἀναίμων οὐδέν. Ἔνια δ' ἔχει

καὶ κοιλίαν, καὶ ἀπὸ ταύτης τὸ λοιπὸν ἔντερον ἢ ἁπλοῦν ἢ

10 εἱλιγμένον, ὥσπερ αἱ ἀκρίδες. Ὁ δὲ τέττιξ μόνον τῶν τοιούτων

καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων στόμα οὐκ ἔχει, ἀλλ' οἷον τοῖς

ὀπισθοκέντροις τὸ γλωττοειδές, τοῦτο μακρὸν καὶ συμφυὲς

καὶ ἀδιάσχιστον, δι' οὗ τῇ δρόσῳ τρέφεται μόνον· ἐν δὲ τῇ

κοιλίᾳ οὐκ ἴσχει περίττωμα. Ἔστι δ' αὐτῶν πλείω εἴδη, καὶ

15 διαφέρουσι μεγέθει τε καὶ μικρότητι καὶ τῷ τοὺς μὲν καλουμένους

ἀχέτας ὑπὸ τὸ διάζωμα διῃρῆσθαι καὶ ἔχειν

ὑμένα φανερόν, τὰ δὲ τεττιγόνια μὴ ἔχειν.

Ἔστι δ' ἔνια ζῷα περιττὰ καὶ ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ, ἃ διὰ

τὸ σπάνια εἶναι οὐκ ἔστι θεῖναι εἰς γένος. Ἤδη γάρ φασί τινες

20 τῶν ἐμπειρικῶν ἁλιέων [οἱ μὲν] ἑωρακέναι ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ

ὅμοια δοκίοις, μέλανα, στρογγύλα τε καὶ ἰσοπαχῆ·

ἕτερα δὲ καὶ ἀσπίσιν ὅμοια, τὸ μὲν χρῶμα ἐρυθρά, πτερύγια

δ' ἔχοντα πυκνά· καὶ ἄλλα ὅμοια αἰδοίῳ ἀνδρὸς τό

τ' εἶδος καὶ τὸ μέγεθος, πλὴν ἀντὶ τῶν ὄρχεων πτερύγια

25 ἔχειν δύο, καὶ λαβέσθαι ποτὲ τοῦ πολυαγκίστρου τῷ

ἄκρῳ.

Τὰ μὲν οὖν μέρη τῶν ζῴων ἁπάντων τά τ' ἐκτὸς καὶ

τὰ ἐντὸς περὶ ἕκαστον γένος καὶ ἰδίᾳ καὶ κοινῇ τοῦτον ἔχει

τὸν τρόπον.

1Wherefore they have nor spine, nor bone, nor sepia-bone, nor enveloping shell; but their body by its hardness is its own protection and requires no extraneous support. However, insects have a skin; but the skin is exceedingly thin. These and such-like are the external organs of insects.
Internally, next after 5the mouth, comes a gut, in the majority of cases straight and simple down to the outlet of the residuum: but in a few cases the gut is coiled. No insect is provided with any viscera, or is supplied with fat; and these statements apply to all animals devoid of blood. Some have a stomach also, and attached to this the rest of the gut, either simple or convoluted as in the case of the acris or 10grasshopper.
The tettix or cicada, alone of such creatures (and, in fact, alone of all creatures), is unprovided with a mouth, but it is provided with the tongue-like formation found in insects furnished with frontward stings; and this formation in the cicada is long, continuous, and devoid of any split; and by the aid of this the creature feeds on dew, and on dew only, and in its stomach 15no excretion is ever found. Of the cicada there are several kinds, and they differ from one another in relative magnitude, and in this respect that the achetes or chirper is provided with a cleft or aperture under the hypozoma and has in it a membrane quite discernible, whilst the membrane is indiscernible in the tettigonia.
Furthermore, there are some strange creatures to be found in the 20sea, which from their rarity we are unable to classify. Experienced fishermen affirm, some that they have at times seen in the sea animals like sticks, black, rounded, and of the same thickness throughout; others that they have seen creatures resembling shields, red in colour, and furnished with fins packed close together; and others that they have seen creatures resembling the male organ 25in shape and size, with a pair of fins in the place of the testicles, and they aver that on one occasion a creature of this description was brought up on the end of a nightline.
So much then for the parts, external and internal, exceptional and common, of all animals.

Book 4,Chapter 8 (532b29–535a26)

Περὶ δὲ τῶν αἰσθήσεων νῦν λεκτέον· οὐ γὰρ ὁμοίως

30 ἁπᾶσιν ὑπάρχουσιν, ἀλλὰ τοῖς μὲν πᾶσαι τοῖς δ'

ἐλάττους εἰσίν. Εἰσὶ δ' αἱ πλεῖσται, καὶ παρ' ἃς οὐδεμία φαίνεται

ἴδιος ἑτέρα, πέντε τὸν ἀριθμόν, ὄψις, ἀκοή, ὄσφρησις,

γεῦσις, ἁφή. Ἄνθρωπος μὲν οὖν καὶ τὰ ζῳοτόκα καὶ πεζά,

We now proceed to treat of the senses; for there are diversities in animals with regard to the senses, seeing that some 30animals have the use of all the senses, and others the use of a limited number of them. The total number of the senses (for we have no experience of any special sense not here included), is five: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.

533a

1 πρὸς δὲ τούτοις καὶ ὅσα ἔναιμα καὶ ᾠοτόκα, πάντα

φαίνεται ἔχοντα ταύτας πάσας, πλὴν εἴ τι πεπήρωται γένος

ἕν, οἷον τὸ τῶν ἀσπαλάκων. Τοῦτο γὰρ ὄψιν οὐκ ἔχει· ὀφθαλμοὺς

γὰρ ἐν μὲν τῷ φανερῷ οὐκ ἔχει, ἀφαιρεθέντος

5 δὲ τοῦ δέρματος ὄντος παχέος ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς κατὰ τὴν

χώραν τὴν ἔξω τῶν ὀμμάτων ἔσωθέν εἰσιν οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ

διεφθαρμένοι, πάντ' ἔχοντες ταὐτὰ τὰ μέρη τοῖς ἀληθινοῖς·

ἔχουσι γὰρ τό τε μέλαν καὶ τὸ ἐντὸς τοῦ μέλανος,

τὴν καλουμένην κόρην, καὶ τὸ κύκλῳ πῖον, ἐλάττω μέντοι

10 ταῦτα πάντα τῶν φανερῶν ὀφθαλμῶν. Εἰς δὲ τὸ ἔξωθεν οὐδὲν

σημαίνει τούτων διὰ τὸ τοῦ δέρματος πάχος, ὡς ἐν τῇ γενέσει

πηρουμένης τῆς φύσεως· εἰσὶ γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου,

ᾗ συνάπτει τῷ μυελῷ, δύο πόροι νευρώδεις καὶ ἰσχυροὶ

παρ' αὐτὰς τείνοντες τὰς ἕδρας τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν, τελευτῶντες

15 δ' εἰς τοὺς ἄνω χαυλιόδοντας. Τὰ δ' ἄλλα καὶ τῶν

χρωμάτων αἴσθησιν ἔχει καὶ τῶν ψόφων, ἔτι δ' ὀσμῆς

καὶ χυμῶν. Τὴν δὲ πέμπτην αἴσθησιν τὴν ἁφὴν καλουμένην

καὶ τἆλλα πάντ' ἔχει ζῷα. Ἐν μὲν οὖν ἐνίοις [καὶ] τὰ

αἰσθητήρια φανερώτατά ἐστι, τὰ μὲν τῶν ὀμμάτων καὶ

20 μᾶλλον. Διωρισμένον γὰρ ἔχει τὸν τόπον τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν

καὶ τὸν τῆς ἀκοῆς· ἔνια μὲν γὰρ ὦτα ἔχει, ἔνια δὲ τοὺς

πόρους φανερούς. Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ ὀσφρήσεως· τὰ μὲν

γὰρ ἔχει μυκτῆρας, τὰ δὲ τοὺς πόρους τῆς ὀσφρήσεως,

οἷον τὸ τῶν ὀρνίθων γένος. Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὸ τῶν χυμῶν

25 αἰσθητήριον, τὴν γλῶτταν. Ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐνύδροις, καλουμένοις

δ' ἰχθύσι, τὸ μὲν τῶν χυμῶν αἰσθητήριον, τὴν γλῶτταν,

ἔχουσι μέν, ἔχουσι δ' ἀμυδρῶς· ὀστώδη γὰρ καὶ οὐκ ἀπολελυμένην

ἔχουσιν. Ἀλλ' ἐνίοις τῶν ἰχθύων ὁ οὐρανός ἐστι

σαρκώδης, οἷον τῶν ποταμίων ἐν τοῖς κυπρίνοις, ὥστε τοῖς

30 μὴ σκοπουμένοις ἀκριβῶς δοκεῖν ταύτην εἶναι γλῶτταν. Ὅτι

δ' αἰσθάνονται γευόμενα, φανερόν· ἰδίοις τε γὰρ πολλὰ

χαίρει χυμοῖς, καὶ τὸ τῆς ἀμίας λαμβάνουσι μάλιστα

δέλεαρ καὶ τὸ τῶν πιόνων ἰχθύων, ὡς χαίροντες ἐν τῇ γεύσει

καὶ ἐδωδῇ τοῖς τοιούτοις δελέασιν. Τῆς δ' ἀκοῆς καὶ τῆς

1Man, then, and all vivipara that have feet, and, further, all red-blooded ovipara, appear to have the use of all the five senses, except where some isolated species has been subjected to mutilation, as in the case of the mole. For this animal is deprived of sight; it has no eyes visible, 5but if the skin-a thick one, by the way-be stripped off the head, about the place in the exterior where eyes usually are, the eyes are found inside in a stunted condition, furnished with all the parts found in ordinary eyes; that is to say, we find there the black rim, and the fatty part surrounding it; but all these parts are smaller than the same 10parts in ordinary visible eyes. There is no external sign of the existence of these organs in the mole, owing to the thickness of the skin drawn over them, so that it would seem that the natural course of development were congenitally arrested; (for extending from the brain at its junction with the marrow are two strong sinewy ducts running past the 15sockets of the eyes, and terminating at the upper eye-teeth). All the other animals of the kinds above mentioned have a perception of colour and of sound, and the senses of smell and taste; the fifth sense, that, namely, of touch, is common to all animals whatsoever.
In some animals the organs of sense are plainly discernible; and this is especially the case 20with the eyes. For animals have a special locality for the eyes, and also a special locality for hearing: that is to say, some animals have ears, while others have the passage for sound discernible. It is the same with the sense of smell; that is to say, some animals have nostrils, and others have only the passages for smell, such as birds. It is the 25same also with the organ of taste, the tongue. Of aquatic red-blooded animals, fishes possess the organ of taste, namely the tongue, but it is in an imperfect and amorphous form, in other words it is osseous and undetached. In some fish the palate is fleshy, as in the fresh-water carp, so that by an inattentive observer it might be mistaken for a tongue.
There 30is no doubt but that fishes have the sense of taste, for a great number of them delight in special flavours; and fishes freely take the hook if it be baited with a piece of flesh from a tunny or from any fat fish, obviously enjoying the taste and the eating of food of this kind.

533b

1 ὀσφρήσεως οὐδὲν ἔχουσι φανερὸν αἰσθητήριον· ἃ γὰρ

ἄν τισιν εἶναι δόξειε κατὰ τοὺς τόπους τῶν μυκτήρων, οὐδὲν

περαίνει πρὸς τὸν ἐγκέφαλον, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν τυφλά, τὰ δὲ

φέρει μέχρι τῶν βραγχίων. Ὅτι δὲ καὶ ἀκούουσι καὶ ὀςφραίνονται,

5 φανερόν· τούς τε γὰρ ψόφους φεύγοντα φαίνεται

τοὺς μεγάλους, οἷον τὰς εἰρεσίας τῶν τριήρων, ὥστε

λαμβάνεσθαι ῥᾳδίως ἐν ταῖς θαλάμαις· καὶ γὰρ ἂν μικρὸς

ᾖ ὁ ἔξω ψόφος, ὅμως τοῖς ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ τὴν ἀκοὴν

ἔχουσι χαλεπὸς καὶ μέγας καὶ βαρὺς φαίνεται πᾶσιν. Ὃ

10 συμβαίνει καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς τῶν δελφίνων θήρας· ὅταν γὰρ ἀθρόως

περικυκλώσωσι τοῖς μονοξύλοις, ψοφοῦντες ἐξ αὐτῶν

ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ ἀθρόους ποιοῦσιν ἐξοκέλλειν φεύγοντας

εἰς τὴν γῆν, καὶ λαμβάνουσιν ὑπὸ τοῦ ψόφου καρηβαροῦντας.

Καίτοι οὐδ' οἱ δελφῖνες τῆς ἀκοῆς φανερὸν οὐδὲν ἔχουσιν αἰσθητήριον.

15 Ἔτι δ' ἐν ταῖς θήραις τῶν ἰχθύων ὅτι μάλιστα

εὐλαβοῦνται ψόφον ποιεῖν ἢ κώπης ἢ δικτύων οἱ περὶ τὴν

θήραν ταύτην ὄντες· ἀλλ' ὅταν κατανοήσωσιν ἔν τινι τόπῳ

πολλοὺς ἀθρόους ὄντας, ἐκ τοσούτου τόπου τεκμαιρόμενοι τὰ

δίκτυα καθιᾶσιν, ὅπως μήτε κώπης μήτε τῆς ῥύμης τῆς

20 ἁλιάδος ἀφίκηται πρὸς τὸν τόπον ἐκεῖνον ὁ ψόφος· παραγγέλλουσί

τε πᾶσι τοῖς ναύταις ὅτι μάλιστα σιγῇ πλεῖν,

μέχρι περ ἂν κυκλώσωσιν. Ἐνίοτε δ' ὅταν βούλωνται

συνδραμεῖν, ταὐτὸν ποιοῦσιν ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῆς τῶν δελφίνων θήρας·

ψοφοῦσι γὰρ λίθοις, ἵνα φοβηθέντες συνθέωσιν εἰς

25 ταὐτὸ καὶ τοῖς δικτύοις οὕτω περιβάλλωνται. Καὶ πρὶν μὲν

συγκλεῖσαι, καθάπερ εἴρηται, κωλύουσι ψοφεῖν, ὅταν δὲ

κυκλώσωσι, κελεύουσιν ἤδη βοᾶν καὶ ψοφεῖν· τὸν γὰρ ψόφον

καὶ τὸν θόρυβον ἀκούοντες ἐμπίπτουσι διὰ τὸν φόβον.

Ἔτι δ' ὅταν ἴδωσιν οἱ ἁλιεῖς ἐκ πάνυ πολλοῦ νεμομένους

30 ἀθρόους πολλοὺς ἐν ταῖς γαλήναις καὶ εὐδίαις ἐπιπολάζοντας,

καὶ βουληθῶσιν ἰδεῖν τὰ μεγέθη καὶ τί τὸ γένος αὐτῶν,

ἂν μὲν ἀψοφητὶ προσπλεύσωσι, λανθάνουσι καὶ καταλαμβάνουσιν

ἐπιπολάζοντας ἔτι, ἐὰν δέ τις τύχῃ ψοφήσας

πρότερον, φανεροί εἰσι φεύγοντες. Ἔτι δ' ἐν τοῖς ποταμοῖς

1Fishes have no visible organs for hearing or for smell; for what might appear to indicate an organ for smell in the region of the nostril has no communication with the brain. These indications, in fact, in some cases lead nowhere, like blind alleys, and in other cases lead only to the gills; but 5for all this fishes undoubtedly hear and smell. For they are observed to run away from any loud noise, such as would be made by the rowing of a galley, so as to become easy of capture in their holes; for, by the way, though a sound be very slight in the open air, it has a loud and alarming resonance to creatures that hear under water. And this is shown in the capture 10of the dolphin; for when the hunters have enclosed a shoal of these fishes with a ring of their canoes, they set up from inside the canoes a loud splashing in the water, and by so doing induce the creatures to run in a shoal high and dry up on the beach, and so capture them while stupefied with the noise. And yet, for all this, the dolphin has no organ of hearing 15discernible. Furthermore, when engaged in their craft, fishermen are particularly careful to make no noise with oar or net; and after they have spied a shoal, they let down their nets at a spot so far off that they count upon no noise being likely to reach the shoal, occasioned either by oar or by the surging of their boats through the water; and the crews are strictly 20enjoined to preserve silence until the shoal has been surrounded. And, at times, when they want the fish to crowd together, they adopt the stratagem of the dolphin-hunter; in other words they clatter stones together, that the fish may, in their fright, gather close into one spot, and so they envelop them within their nets. (Before surrounding them, then, they preserve 25silence, as was said; but, after hemming the shoal in, they call on every man to shout out aloud and make any kind of noise; for on hearing the noise and hubbub the fish are sure to tumble into the nets from sheer fright.) Further, when fishermen see a shoal of fish feeding at a distance, disporting themselves in calm bright weather on the surface of the water, if 30they are anxious to descry the size of the fish and to learn what kind of a fish it is, they may succeed in coming upon the shoal whilst yet basking at the surface if they sail up without the slightest noise, but if any man make a noise previously, the shoal will be seen to scurry away in alarm.

534a

1 εἰσιν ἰχθύδια ἄττα ἃ καλοῦσί τινες κόττους·

ταῦτα θηρεύουσί τινες διὰ τὸ ὑπὸ ταῖς πέτραις ὑποδεδυκέναι

κόπτοντες τὰς πέτρας λίθοις· τὰ δ' ἐκπίπτει παραφερόμενα

ὡς ἀκούοντα καὶ καρηβαροῦντα ὑπὸ τοῦ ψόφου. Ὅτι μὲν οὖν

5 ἀκούουσιν, ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων ἐστὶ φανερόν· εἰσὶ δέ τινες οἵ φασι

καὶ μάλιστα ὀξυηκόους εἶναι τῶν ζῴων τοὺς ἰχθῦς, ἐκ τοῦ

διατρίβοντας περὶ τὴν θάλατταν ἐντυγχάνειν τοιούτοις πολλοῖς.

Μάλιστα δὲ τῶν ἰχθύων εἰσὶν ὀξυήκοοι κεστρεύς,

λάβραξ, σάλπη, χρομίς, καὶ ὅσοι ἄλλοι τοιοῦτοι τῶν

10 ἰχθύων· οἱ δ' ἄλλοι τούτων ἧττον, διὸ μᾶλλον πρὸς τῷ

ἐδάφει τῆς θαλάττης ποιοῦνται τὰς διαγωγάς. Ὁμοίως

δὲ καὶ περὶ ὀσφρήσεως. Τοῦ τε γὰρ μὴ προσφάτου δελέατος

οὐκ ἐθέλουσιν ἅπτεσθαι οἱ πλεῖστοι τῶν ἰχθύων, τοῖς

τε δελέασιν οὐ τοῖς αὐτοῖς ἁλίσκονται πάντες ἀλλ' ἰδίοις,

15 διαγινώσκοντες τῷ ὀσφραίνεσθαι· ἔνια γὰρ δελεάζεται τοῖς

δυσώδεσιν, ὥσπερ ἡ σάλπη τῇ κόπρῳ. Ἔτι δὲ πολλοὶ τῶν

ἰχθύων διατρίβουσιν ἐν σπηλαίοις, οὓς ἐπειδὰν βούλωνται προκαλέσασθαι

εἰς τὴν θήραν οἱ ἁλιεῖς, τὸ στόμα τοῦ σπηλαίου

περιαλείφουσι ταριχηραῖς ὀσμαῖς, πρὸς ἃς ἐξέρχονται

20 ταχέως. Ἁλίσκεται δὲ καὶ ἡ ἔγχελυς τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον·

τιθέασι γὰρ τῶν ταριχηρῶν τι κεραμίων, ἐνθέντες εἰς τὸ

στόμα τοῦ κεραμίου τὸν καλούμενον ἠθμόν. Καὶ ὅλως δὲ πρὸς

τὰ κνισώδη φέρονται πάντες θᾶττον. Καὶ τῶν σηπιῶν δὲ

τὰ σαρκία σταθεύσαντες ἕνεκα τῆς ὀσμῆς δελεάζουσι τούτοις·

25 προσέρχονται γὰρ μᾶλλον. Τοὺς δὲ πολύπους φασὶν ὀπτήσαντες

εἰς τοὺς κύρτους ἐντιθέναι οὐδενὸς ἄλλου χάριν ἢ τῆς

κνίσης. Ἔτι δ' οἱ ῥυάδες ἰχθύες, ὅταν ἐκχυθῇ τὸ πλύμα

τῶν ἰχθύων, ἢ τῆς ἀντλίας ἐκχυθείσης, φεύγουσιν ὡς ὀςφραινόμενοι

τῆς ὀσμῆς αὐτῶν. Καὶ τοῦ αὑτῶν δὴ αἵματος

1Again, there is a small river-fish called the cottus or bullhead; this creature burrows under a rock, and fishers catch it by clattering stones against the rock, and the fish, bewildered at the noise, darts out of its hiding-place. From these facts it is quite obvious that fishes can hear; 5and indeed some people, from living near the sea and frequently witnessing such phenomena, affirm that of all living creatures the fish is the quickest of hearing. And, by the way, of all fishes the quickest of hearing are the cestreus or mullet, the chremps, the labrax or basse, the salpe or saupe, the chromis or sciaena, and such like. Other fishes are less 10quick of hearing, and, as might be expected, are more apt to be found living at the bottom of the sea.
The case is similar in regard to the sense of smell. Thus, as a rule, fishes will not touch a bait that is not fresh, neither are they all caught by one and the same bait, but they are severally caught by baits suited to their several likings, and these baits they 15distinguish by their sense of smell; and, by the way, some fishes are attracted by malodorous baits, as the saupe, for instance, is attracted by excrement. Again, a number of fishes live in caves; and accordingly fishermen, when they want to entice them out, smear the mouth of a cave with strong-smelling pickles, and the fish are Soon attracted to the smell. 20And the eel is caught in a similar way; for the fisherman lays down an earthen pot that has held pickles, after inserting a 'weel' in the neck thereof. As a general rule, fishes are especially attracted by savoury smells. For this reason, fishermen roast the fleshy parts of the cuttle-fish and use it as bait on account of its smell, for fish are peculiarly attracted 25by it; they also bake the octopus and bait their fish-baskets or weels with it, entirely, as they say, on account of its smell. Furthermore, gregarious fishes, if fish washings or bilge-water be thrown overboard, are observed to scud off to a distance, from apparent dislike of the smell.

534b

1 τάχιστα ὀσφραίνεσθαί φασιν αὐτούς· δῆλον δὲ ποιοῦσι

φεύγοντες καὶ ἐκτοπίζοντες μακράν, ὅταν αἷμα γένηται ἰχθύων.

Καὶ ὅλως δ' ἐὰν μὲν σαπρῷ τις δελέατι δελεάσῃ τὸν

κύρτον, οὐκ ἐθέλουσιν εἰσδύνειν οὐδὲ πλησιάζειν, ἐὰν δὲ νεαρῷ

5 δελέατι καὶ κεκνισωμένῳ, εὐθὺς φερόμενοι πόρρωθεν

εἰσδύνουσιν. Μάλιστα δὲ φανερόν ἐστι περὶ τῶν εἰρημένων ἐπὶ τῶν

δελφίνων· οὗτοι γὰρ τῆς ἀκοῆς αἰσθητήριον μὲν οὐδὲν ἔχουσι

φανερόν, ἁλίσκονται δὲ διὰ τὸ καρηβαρεῖν ὑπὸ τοῦ ψόφου,

καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον. Οὐδὲ δὴ τῆς ὀσφρήσεως αἰσθητήριον

10 οὐδὲν ἔχει φανερόν, ὀσφραίνεται δ' ὀξέως.

Ὅτι μὲν οὖν πάσας τὰς αἰσθήσεις ἔχει ταῦτα τὰ

ζῷα, φανερόν· τὰ δὲ λοιπὰ γένη τῶν ζῴων ἐστὶ μὲν τέτταρα

διῃρημένα εἰς γένη, ἃ περιέχει τὸ πλῆθος τῶν λοιπῶν

ζῴων, τά τε μαλάκια καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα καὶ τὰ

15 ὀστρακόδερμα καὶ ἔτι τὰ ἔντομα. Τούτων δὲ τὰ μὲν μαλάκια

καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα καὶ τὰ ἔντομα ἔχει πάσας τὰς

αἰσθήσεις· καὶ γὰρ ὄψιν ἔχει καὶ ὄσφρησιν καὶ γεῦσιν.

Τά τε γὰρ ἔντομα ὄντα πόρρω συναισθάνεται, καὶ τὰ πτερωτὰ

καὶ τὰ ἄπτερα, οἷον αἱ μέλιτται καὶ οἱ κνῖπες τοῦ

20 μέλιτος· ἐκ πολλοῦ γὰρ αἰσθάνονται ὡς τῇ ὀσμῇ γινώσκοντα.

Καὶ ὑπὸ τῆς τοῦ θείου ὀσμῆς πολλὰ ἀπόλλυται.

Ἔτι δ' οἱ μύρμηκες ὑπ' ὀριγάνου καὶ θείου περιπαττομένων

λείων ἐκλείπουσι τὰς μυρμηκίας, καὶ ἐλαφείου κέρατος θυμιωμένου

τὰ πλεῖστα φεύγει τῶν τοιούτων· μάλιστα δὲ φεύγουσι

25 θυμιωμένου τοῦ στύρακος. Ἔτι δ' αἱ σηπίαι καὶ οἱ πολύποδες

καὶ οἱ κάραβοι τοῖς δελέασιν ἁλίσκονται· καὶ οἵ γε

πολύποδες οὕτω μὲν προσέχονται ὥστε μὴ ἀποσπᾶσθαι

ἀλλ' ὑπομένειν τεμνόμενοι· ἐὰν δέ τις κόνυζαν προσενέγκῃ,

ἀφιᾶσιν εὐθέως ὀσμώμενοι.

30 Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ γεύσεως·

1And it is asserted that they can at once detect by smell the presence of their own blood; and this faculty is manifested by their hurrying off to a great distance whenever fish-blood is spilt in the sea. And, as a general rule, if you bait your weel with a stinking bait, the fish refuse to enter the 5weel or even to draw near; but if you bait the weel with a fresh and savoury bait, they come at once from long distances and swim into it. And all this is particularly manifest in the dolphin; for, as was stated, it has no visible organ of hearing, and yet it is captured when stupefied with noise; and so, while it has no visible organ for smell, it has the sense of smell 10remarkably keen. It is manifest, then, that the animals above mentioned are in possession of all the five senses.
All other animals may, with very few exceptions, be comprehended within four genera: to wit, molluscs, crustaceans, testaceans, and insects. Of these four genera, the mollusc, the crustacean, and the insect have all the senses: at all events, they have sight, 15smell, and taste. As for insects, both winged and wingless, they can detect the presence of scented objects afar off, as for instance bees and snipes detect the presence of honey at a distance; and do so recognizing it by smell. Many insects are killed by the smell of brimstone; ants, if the apertures to their dwellings be smeared with powdered origanum and brimstone, quit 20their nests; and most insects may be banished with burnt hart's horn, or better still by the burning of the gum styrax. The cuttle-fish, the octopus, and the crawfish may be caught by bait. The octopus, in fact, clings so tightly to the rocks that it cannot be pulled off, but remains attached even when the knife is employed to sever it; and yet, if you apply fleabane to 25the creature, it drops off at the very smell of it. The facts are similar in regard to taste. For the food that insects go in quest of is of diverse kinds, and they do not all delight in the same flavours: for instance, the bee never settles on a withered or wilted flower, but on fresh and sweet ones; and the conops or gnat settles only on acrid substances and not on sweet.

535a

1 τήν τε γὰρ τροφὴν ἑτέραν διώκουσι, καὶ οὐ τοῖς

αὐτοῖς πάντα χαίρει χυμοῖς, οἷον ἡ μέλιττα πρὸς οὐδὲν προςιζάνει

σαπρὸν ἀλλὰ πρὸς τὰ γλυκέα, ὁ δὲ κώνωψ πρὸς

οὐδὲν γλυκὺ ἀλλὰ πρὸς τὰ ὀξέα. Τὸ δὲ τῇ ἁφῇ αἰσθάνεσθαι,

5 ὥσπερ καὶ πρότερον εἴρηται, πᾶσιν ὑπάρχει τοῖς ζῴοις.

Τὰ δ' ὀστρακόδερμα ὄσφρησιν μὲν καὶ γεῦσιν ἔχει, φανερὸν

δ' ἐκ τῶν δελεασμῶν, οἷον ἐπὶ τῆς πορφύρας· αὕτη γὰρ

δελεάζεται τοῖς σαπροῖς, καὶ προσέρχεται πρὸς τὸ τοιοῦτον

δέλεαρ ὡς αἴσθησιν ἔχουσα πόρρωθεν. Καὶ τῶν χυμῶν δ' ὅτι

10 αἴσθησιν ἔχει, φανερὸν ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν· πρὸς ἃ γὰρ διὰ τὰς

ὀσμὰς προσέρχεται κρίναντα, τούτων χαίρει καὶ τοῖς χυμοῖς

ἕκαστα. Ἔτι δ' ὅσα ἔχει στόμα, χαίρει καὶ λυπεῖται τῇ τῶν

χυμῶν ἅψει. Περὶ δ' ὄψεως καὶ ἀκοῆς βέβαιον μὲν οὐδέν

ἐστιν οὐδὲ λίαν φανερόν, δοκοῦσι δ' οἵ τε σωλῆνες, ἄν τις

15 ψοφήσῃ, καταδύεσθαι, καὶ φεύγειν κατωτέρω, ὅταν αἴσθωνται

τὸ σιδήριον προσιόν (ὑπερέχει γὰρ αὐτῶν μικρόν,

τὸ δ' ἄλλο ὥσπερ ἐν θαλάμῃ ἐστίν), καὶ οἱ κτένες, ἐάν τις

προσφέρῃ τὸν δάκτυλον, χάσκουσι καὶ συμμύουσιν ὡς ὁρῶντες.

Καὶ τοὺς νηρείτας δ' οἱ θηρεύοντες οὐ κατὰ πνεῦμα προςιόντες

20 θηρεύουσιν, ὅταν θηρεύσωσιν αὐτοὺς εἰς τὸ δέλεαρ, οὐδὲ

φθεγγόμενοι ἀλλὰ σιωπῶντες ὡς ὀσφραινομένων καὶ ἀκουόντων·

ἐὰν δὲ φθέγγωνται, φασὶν ὑποφεύγειν αὐτούς. Ἥκιςτα

δὲ τὴν ὄσφρησιν τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων φαίνεται ἔχειν τῶν

μὲν πορευτικῶν ἐχῖνος, τῶν δ' ἀκινήτων τήθυα καὶ βάλανοι.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν τῶν αἰσθητηρίων τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον

τοῖς ζῴοις πᾶσιν, περὶ δὲ φωνῆς τῶν ζῴων ὧδ' ἔχει.

1The sense of touch, by the way, as has been remarked, is common to all animals. Testaceans have the senses of smell and taste. With regard to their possession of the sense of smell, that is proved by the use of baits, e.g. in the case of the purple-fish; for this creature is enticed by baits of 5rancid meat, which it perceives and is attracted to from a great distance. The proof that it possesses a sense of taste hangs by the proof of its sense of smell; for whenever an animal is attracted to a thing by perceiving its smell, it is sure to like the taste of it. Further, all animals furnished with a mouth derive pleasure or pain from the touch of sapid 10juices.
With regard to sight and hearing, we cannot make statements with thorough confidence or on irrefutable evidence. However, the solen or razor-fish, if you make a noise, appears to burrow in the sand, and to hide himself deeper when he hears the approach of the iron rod (for the animal, be it observed, juts a little out of its hole, while the greater part of the 15body remains within),-and scallops, if you present your finger near their open valves, close them tight again as though they could see what you were doing. Furthermore, when fishermen are laying bait for neritae, they always get to leeward of them, and never speak a word while so engaged, under the firm impression that the animal can smell and hear; and they assure us 20that, if any one speaks aloud, the creature makes efforts to escape. With regard to testaceans, of the walking or creeping species the urchin appears to have the least developed sense of smell; and, of the stationary species, the ascidian and the barnacle.
So much for the organs of sense in the general run of animals. We now proceed to treat of voice.

Book 4,Chapter 9 (535a27–536b23)

Φωνὴ

καὶ ψόφος ἕτερόν ἐστι, καὶ τρίτον διάλεκτος. Φωνεῖ

μὲν οὖν οὐδενὶ τῶν ἄλλων μορίων οὐδὲν πλὴν τῷ φάρυγγι·

30 διὸ ὅσα μὴ ἔχει πλεύμονα, οὐδὲ φθέγγεται· διάλεκτος δ'

ἡ τῆς φωνῆς ἐστι τῇ γλώττῃ διάρθρωσις. Τὰ μὲν οὖν φωνήεντα

ἡ φωνὴ καὶ ὁ λάρυγξ ἀφίησιν, τὰ δ' ἄφωνα ἡ

Voice and sound 25are different from one another; and language differs from voice and sound. The fact is that no animal can give utterance to voice except by the action of the pharynx, and consequently such animals as are devoid of lung have no voice; and language is the articulation of vocal sounds by the instrumentality of the tongue. Thus, the voice and larynx can emit vocal or 30vowel sounds; non-vocal or consonantal sounds are made by the tongue and the lips; and out of these vocal and non-vocal sounds language is composed.

535b

1 γλῶττα καὶ τὰ χείλη· ἐξ ὧν ἡ διάλεκτός ἐστιν. Διὸ

ὅσα γλῶτταν μὴ ἔχει ἢ μὴ ἀπολελυμένην, οὐ διαλέγεται.

Ψοφεῖν δ' ἔστι καὶ ἄλλοις μορίοις. Τὰ μὲν οὖν

ἔντομα οὔτε φωνεῖ οὔτε διαλέγεται, ψοφεῖ δὲ τῷ ἔσω πνεύματι,

5 οὐ τῷ θύραζε· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἀναπνεῖ αὐτῶν, ἀλλὰ τὰ

μὲν βομβεῖ, οἷον μέλιττα καὶ τὰ πτηνὰ αὐτῶν, τὰ δ' ᾄδειν

λέγεται, οἷον οἱ τέττιγες. Πάντα δὲ ταῦτα ψοφεῖ τῷ ὑμένι

τῷ ὑπὸ τὸ ὑπόζωμα, ὅσων διῄρηται, οἷον τῶν τεττίγων τι

γένος τῇ τρίψει τοῦ πνεύματος. Καὶ αἱ μυῖαι δὲ καὶ αἱ

10 μέλιτται καὶ τἆλλα πάντα, τῇ πτήσει αἴροντα καὶ συστέλλοντα·

ὁ γὰρ ψόφος τρῖψις τοῦ ἔσω πνεύματός ἐστιν. Αἱ δ'

ἀκρίδες τοῖς πηδαλίοις τρίβουσαι ποιοῦσι τὸν ψόφον. Οὐδὲ δὴ

τῶν μαλακίων οὐδὲν οὔτε φθέγγεται οὔτε ψοφεῖ οὐδένα φυσικὸν

ψόφον, οὐδὲ τῶν μαλακοστράκων. Οἱ δ' ἰχθύες ἄφωνοι μέν

15 εἰσιν (οὔτε γὰρ πλεύμονα οὔτ' ἀρτηρίαν καὶ φάρυγγα ἔχουσι),

ψόφους δέ τινας ἀφιᾶσι καὶ τριγμοὺς οὓς λέγουσι φωνεῖν,

οἷον λύρα καὶ χρομίς (οὗτοι γὰρ ἀφιᾶσιν ὥσπερ γρυλισμόν)

καὶ ὁ κάπρος ὁ ἐν τῷ Ἀχελῴῳ, ἔτι δὲ χαλκὶς καὶ κόκκυξ·

ἡ μὲν γὰρ ψοφεῖ οἷον συριγμόν, ὁ δὲ παραπλήσιον

20 τῷ κόκκυγι ψόφον, ὅθεν καὶ τοὔνομα ἔχει. Πάντα δὲ ταῦτα

τὴν δοκοῦσαν φωνὴν ἀφιᾶσι, τὰ μὲν τῇ τρίψει τῶν βραγχίων

(ἀκανθώδεις γὰρ οἱ τόποι), τὰ δὲ τοῖς ἐντὸς τοῖς περὶ

τὴν κοιλίαν· πνεῦμα γὰρ ἔχει τούτων ἕκαστον, ὃ προστρίβοντα

καὶ κινοῦντα ποιεῖ τοὺς ψόφους. Καὶ τῶν σελαχῶν δ'

25 ἔνια δοκεῖ τρίζειν. Ἀλλὰ ταῦτα φωνεῖν μὲν οὐκ ὀρθῶς ἔχει

φάναι, ψοφεῖν δέ. Καὶ γὰρ οἱ κτένες ὅταν φέρωνται ἀπερειδόμενοι

τῷ ὑγρῷ, ὃ καλοῦσι πέτεσθαι, ῥοιζοῦσι, καὶ αἱ χελιδόνες

αἱ θαλάττιαι ὁμοίως· καὶ γὰρ αὗται πέτονται μετέωροι,

οὐχ ἁπτόμεναι τῆς θαλάττης· τὰ γὰρ πτερύγια

30 ἔχουσι πλατέα καὶ μακρά. Ὥσπερ οὖν τῶν ὀρνίθων πετομένων

ὁ γινόμενος ταῖς πτέρυξι ψόφος οὐ φωνή ἐστιν, οὕτως

οὐδὲ τῶν τοιούτων οὐδενός. Ἀφίησι δὲ καὶ ὁ δελφὶς τριγμὸν καὶ μύζει,

1Consequently, animals that have no tongue at all or that have a tongue not freely detached, have neither voice nor language; although, by the way, they may be enabled to make noises or sounds by other organs than the tongue.
Insects, for instance, have no voice and no language, but they can emit sound by internal air or 5wind, though not by the emission of air or wind; for no insects are capable of respiration. But some of them make a humming noise, like the bee and the other winged insects; and others are said to sing, as the cicada. And all these latter insects make their special noises by means of the membrane that is underneath the 'hypozoma'-those insects, that is to say, whose body is thus divided; as for instance, 10one species of cicada, which makes the sound by means of the friction of the air. Flies and bees, and the like, produce their special noise by opening and shutting their wings in the act of flying; for the noise made is by the friction of air between the wings when in motion. The noise made by grasshoppers is produced by rubbing or reverberating with their long hind-legs.
No mollusc or crustacean can 15produce any natural voice or sound. Fishes can produce no voice, for they have no lungs, nor windpipe and pharynx; but they emit certain inarticulate sounds and squeaks, which is what is called their 'voice', as the lyra or gurnard, and the sciaena (for these fishes make a grunting kind of noise) and the caprus or boar-fish in the river Achelous, and the chalcis and the cuckoo-fish; for the chalcis makes 20a sort piping sound, and the cuckoo-fish makes a sound greatly like the cry of the cuckoo, and is nicknamed from the circumstance. The apparent voice in all these fishes is a sound caused in some cases by a rubbing motion of their gills, which by the way are prickly, or in other cases by internal parts about their bellies; for they all have air or wind inside them, by rubbing and moving which they 25produce the sounds. Some cartilaginous fish seem to squeak.
But in these cases the term 'voice' is inappropriate; the more correct expression would be 'sound'. For the scallop, when it goes along supporting itself on the water, which is technically called 'flying', makes a whizzing sound; and so does the sea-swallow or flying-fish: for this fish flies in the air, clean out of the water, being furnished with 30fins broad and long. Just then as in the flight of birds the sound made by their wings is obviously not voice, so is it in the case of all these other creatures.

536a

1 ὅταν ἐξέλθῃ, ἐν τῷ ἀέρι, οὐχ ὁμοίως δὲ τοῖς εἰρημένοις·

ἔστι γὰρ τούτῳ φωνή· ἔχει γὰρ καὶ πλεύμονα καὶ ἀρτηρίαν,

ἀλλὰ τὴν γλῶτταν οὐκ ἀπολελυμένην οὐδὲ χείλη ὥςτε

ἄρθρον τι τῆς φωνῆς ποιεῖν. Τῶν δ' ἐχόντων γλῶτταν καὶ πλεύμονα

5 ὅσα μὲν ᾠοτόκα ἐστὶ καὶ τετράποδα, ἀφίησι μὲν φωνήν,

ἀσθενῆ δέ, καὶ τὰ μὲν συριγμόν, ὥσπερ οἱ ὄφεις,

τὰ δὲ λεπτὴν καὶ ἀσθενῆ φωνήν, τὰ δὲ σιγμὸν μικρόν, ὥςπερ

αἱ χελῶναι. Ὁ δὲ βάτραχος ἰδίαν ἔχει τὴν γλῶτταν·

τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἔμπροσθεν προσπέφυκεν ἰχθυωδῶς, ὃ τοῖς ἄλλοις

10 ἀπολέλυται, τὸ δὲ πρὸς τὸν φάρυγγα ἀπολέλυται καὶ

πέπτυκται, ᾧ τὴν ἰδίαν ἀφίησι φωνήν. Καὶ τὴν ὀλολυγόνα

δὲ τὴν γινομένην ἐν τῷ ὕδατι οἱ βάτραχοι οἱ ἄρρενες ποιοῦσιν,

ὅταν ἀνακαλῶνται τὰς θηλείας πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν· εἰσὶ

γὰρ ἑκάστοις τῶν ζῴων ἴδιαι φωναὶ πρὸς τὴν ὁμιλίαν καὶ

15 τὸν πλησιασμόν, οἷον καὶ τράγοις καὶ ὑσὶ καὶ προβάτοις.

Ποιεῖ δὲ τὴν ὀλολυγόνα, ὅταν ἰσοχειλῆ τὴν κάτω σιαγόνα

ποιήσας ἐπὶ τῷ ὕδατι περιτείνῃ τὴν ἄνω. Δοκεῖ δὲ διαλαμπουσῶν

τῶν σιαγόνων ἐκ τῆς ἐπιτάσεως ὥσπερ λύχνοι φαίνεσθαι

οἱ ὀφθαλμοί· ἡ γὰρ ὀχεία τὰ πολλὰ γίνεται νύκτωρ.

20 Τὸ δὲ τῶν ὀρνίθων γένος ἀφίησι φωνήν· καὶ μάλιστα

ἔχει διάλεκτον ὅσοις ὑπάρχει ἡ γλῶττα πλατεῖα, καὶ

ὅσα ἔχουσι τὴν γλῶτταν αὐτῶν λεπτήν. Ἔνια μὲν οὖν τὴν αὐτὴν

ἀφιᾶσι φωνὴν τά τε θήλεα καὶ τὰ ἄρρενα, ἔνια δ' ἑτέραν.

Πολύφωνα δ' ἐστὶ καὶ λαλίστερα τὰ ἐλάττω τῶν μεγάλων·

25 καὶ μάλιστα περὶ τὴν ὀχείαν ἕκαστον γίνεται τῶν ὀρνέων

τοιοῦτον. Καὶ τὰ μὲν μαχόμενα φθέγγεται, οἷον ὄρτυξ, τὰ δὲ

πρὸ τοῦ μάχεσθαι προκαλούμενα <οἷον πέρδικες>, ἢ νικῶντα,

οἷον ἀλεκτρυόνες. Ἄδουσι δ' ἔνια μὲν ὁμοίως τὰ ἄρρενα τοῖς

θήλεσιν, οἷον καὶ ἀηδὼν ᾄδει καὶ ὁ ἄρρην καὶ ἡ θήλεια, πλὴν

30 ἡ θήλεια παύεται ὅταν ἐπῳάζῃ καὶ τὰ νεόττια ἔχῃ· ἐνίων

δὲ τὰ ἄρρενα μᾶλλον, οἷον ἀλεκτρυόνες καὶ ὄρτυγες, αἱ δὲ

θήλειαι οὐκ ᾄδουσιν. Τὰ δὲ ζῳοτόκα καὶ τετράποδα ζῷα ἄλλο

1The dolphin, when taken out of the water, gives a squeak and moans in the air, but these noises do not resemble those above mentioned. For this creature has a voice (and can therefore utter vocal or vowel sounds), for it is furnished with a lung and a windpipe; but its tongue is not loose, nor has it lips, so as to give 5utterance to an articulate sound (or a sound of vowel and consonant in combination.)
Of animals which are furnished with tongue and lung, the oviparous quadrupeds produce a voice, but a feeble one; in some cases, a shrill piping sound, like the serpent; in others, a thin faint cry; in others, a low hiss, like the tortoise. The formation of the tongue in the frog is exceptional. The front part of 10the tongue, which in other animals is detached, is tightly fixed in the frog as it is in all fishes; but the part towards the pharynx is freely detached, and may, so to speak, be spat outwards, and it is with this that it makes its peculiar croak. The croaking that goes on in the marsh is the call of the males to the females at rutting time; and, by the way, all animals have a special cry for the like 15end at the like season, as is observed in the case of goats, swine, and sheep. (The bull-frog makes its croaking noise by putting its under jaw on a level with the surface of the water and extending its upper jaw to its utmost capacity. The tension is so great that the upper jaw becomes transparent, and the animal's eyes shine through the jaw like lamps; for, by the way, the commerce of the sexes 20takes place usually in the night time.) Birds can utter vocal sounds; and such of them can articulate best as have the tongue moderately flat, and also such as have thin delicate tongues. In some cases, the male and the female utter the same note; in other cases, different notes. The smaller birds are more vocal and given to chirping than the larger ones; but in the pairing season every species of 25bird becomes particularly vocal. Some of them call when fighting, as the quail, others cry or crow when challenging to combat, as the partridge, or when victorious, as the barn-door cock. In some cases cock-birds and hens sing alike, as is observed in the nightingale, only that the hen stops singing when brooding or rearing her young; in other birds, the cocks sing more than the hens; in fact, with 30barn-door fowls and quails, the cock sings and the hen does not.
Viviparous quadrupeds utter vocal sounds of different kinds, but they have no power of converse.

536b

1 ἄλλην φωνὴν ἀφίησι, διάλεκτον δ' οὐδὲν ἔχει, ἀλλ'

ἴδιον τοῦτ' ἀνθρώπου ἐστίν· ὅσα μὲν γὰρ διάλεκτον ἔχει, καὶ

φωνὴν ἔχει, ὅσα δὲ φωνήν, οὐ πάντα διάλεκτον. Ὅσοι δὲ γίνονται

κωφοὶ ἐκ γενετῆς, πάντες καὶ ἐνεοὶ γίνονται· φωνὴν μὲν

5 οὖν ἀφιᾶσι, διάλεκτον δ' οὐδεμίαν. Τὰ δὲ παιδία ὥσπερ καὶ

τῶν ἄλλων μορίων οὐκ ἐγκρατῆ ἐστιν, οὕτως οὐδὲ τῆς γλώττης

τὸ πρῶτον, καὶ ἔστιν ἀτελής, καὶ ἀπολύεται ὀψιαίτερον,

ὥστε ψελλίζουσι καὶ τραυλίζουσι τὰ πολλά. Διαφέρουσι δὲ κατὰ τοὺς

τόπους καὶ αἱ φωναὶ καὶ αἱ διάλεκτοι. Ἡ μὲν οὖν φωνὴ ὀξύτητι

10 καὶ βαρύτητι μάλιστα ἐπίδηλος, τὸ δ' εἶδος οὐδὲν διαφέρει

τῶν αὐτῶν γενῶν· ἡ δ' ἐν τοῖς ἄρθροις, ἣν ἄν τις ὥςπερ

διάλεκτον εἴπειεν, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων διαφέρει καὶ

τῶν ἐν ταὐτῷ γένει ζῴων κατὰ τοὺς τόπους, οἷον τῶν περδίκων

οἱ μὲν κακκαβίζουσιν οἱ δὲ τρίζουσιν. Καὶ τῶν μικρῶν ὀρνιθίων

15 ἔνια οὐ τὴν αὐτὴν φωνὴν ἀφίησι ἐν τῷ ᾄδειν τοῖς γεννήσασιν,

ἂν ἀπότροφα γένωνται καὶ ἄλλων ἀκούσωσιν ὀρνίθων

ᾀδόντων. Ἤδη δ' ὦπται καὶ ἀηδὼν νεοττὸν προδιδάσκουσα,

ὡς οὐχ ὁμοίας φύσει τῆς διαλέκτου οὔσης καὶ τῆς φωνῆς,

ἀλλ' ἐνδεχόμενον πλάττεσθαι. Καὶ οἱ ἄνθρωποι φωνὴν μὲν

20 τὴν αὐτὴν ἀφιᾶσι, διάλεκτον δ' οὐ τὴν αὐτήν. Ὁ δ' ἐλέφας

φωνεῖ ἄνευ μὲν τοῦ μυκτῆρος αὐτῷ τῷ στόματι πνευματῶδες

ὥσπερ ὅταν ἄνθρωπος ἐκπνέῃ καὶ αἰάζῃ, μετὰ δὲ τοῦ μυκτῆρος

ὅμοιον σάλπιγγι τετραχυσμένῃ.

1In fact, this power, or language, is peculiar to man. For while the capability of talking implies the capability of uttering vocal sounds, the converse does not hold good. Men that are born deaf are in all cases also dumb; that is, they can make vocal sounds, but they cannot speak. Children, just as they have no control 5over other parts, so have no control, at first, over the tongue; but it is so far imperfect, and only frees and detaches itself by degrees, so that in the interval children for the most part lisp and stutter.
Vocal sounds and modes of language differ according to locality. Vocal sounds are characterized chiefly by their pitch, whether high or low, and the kinds of sound capable of being produced 10are identical within the limits of one and the same species; but articulate sound, that one might reasonably designate 'language', differs both in various animals, and also in the same species according to diversity of locality; as for instance, some partridges cackle, and some make a shrill twittering noise. Of little birds, some sing a different note from the parent birds, if they have been 15removed from the nest and have heard other birds singing; and a mother-nightingale has been observed to give lessons in singing to a young bird, from which spectacle we might obviously infer that the song of the bird was not equally congenital with mere voice, but was something capable of modification and of improvement. Men have the same voice or vocal sounds, but they differ from one another in speech 20or language.
The elephant makes a vocal sound of a windlike sort by the mouth alone, unaided by the trunk, just like the sound of a man panting or sighing; but, if it employ the trunk as well, the sound produced is like that of a hoarse trumpet.

Book 4,Chapter 10 (536b24–537b21)

Περὶ δ' ὕπνου καὶ ἐγρηγόρσεως τῶν ζῴων, ὅτι μὲν ὅσα

25 πεζὰ καὶ ἔναιμα πάντα καθεύδει καὶ ἐγρήγορεν, φανερὸν

ποιοῦσι κατὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν. Πάντα γὰρ ὅσα ἔχει βλεφαρίδας,

μύοντα ποιεῖται τὸν ὕπνον. Ἔτι δ' ἐνυπνιάζειν φαίνονται

οὐ μόνον ἄνθρωποι, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἵπποι καὶ κύνες καὶ βόες, ἔτι

δὲ πρόβατα καὶ αἶγες καὶ πᾶν τὸ τῶν ζῳοτόκων καὶ τετραπόδων

30 γένος· δηλοῦσι δ' οἱ κύνες τῷ ὑλαγμῷ. Περὶ δὲ

τῶν ᾠοτοκούντων τοῦτο μὲν ἄδηλον, ὅτι δὲ καθεύδουσι, φανερόν.

Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὰ ἔνυδρα, οἷον οἵ τ' ἰχθύες καὶ τὰ

With regard to the sleeping and waking of animals, all creatures that are red-blooded and provided with legs give sensible proof that they go to sleep 25and that they waken up from sleep; for, as a matter of fact, all animals that are furnished with eyelids shut them up when they go to sleep. Furthermore, it would appear that not only do men dream, but horses also, and dogs, and oxen; aye, and sheep, and goats, and all viviparous quadrupeds; and dogs show their dreaming by barking in their sleep. With regard to oviparous animals we cannot be sure 30that they dream, but most undoubtedly they sleep. And the same may be said of water animals, such as fishes, molluscs, crustaceans, to wit crawfish and the like.

537a

1 μαλάκια καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα, κάραβοί τε καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα.

Βραχύυπνα μὲν οὖν ἐστι πάντα ταῦτα, φαίνεται δὲ καθεύδοντα.

Σημεῖον δὲ κατὰ μὲν τὰ ὄμματα οὐκ ἔστι λαβεῖν

(οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔχει βλέφαρα αὐτῶν), ἀλλὰ ταῖς ἀτρεμίαις.

5 Ἁλίσκονται γὰρ οἱ ἰχθύες, εἰ μὴ διὰ τοὺς φθεῖρας καὶ τοὺς

καλουμένους ψύλλους, κἂν ὥστε τῇ χειρὶ λαμβάνειν ῥᾳδίως·

νῦν δ', ἂν χρονίζωσιν, οὗτοι τῆς νυκτὸς κατεσθίουσι προσπίπτοντες,

πολλοὶ τὸ πλῆθος ὄντες. Γίνονται δ' ἐν τῷ βυθῷ

τῆς θαλάττης, καὶ τοσοῦτοι τὸ πλῆθος ὥστε καὶ τὸ δέλεαρ,

10 ὅ τι ἂν ἰχθύος ᾖ, ἐὰν χρονίσῃ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, κατεσθίουσιν· καὶ

ἀνέλκουσι πολλάκις οἱ ἁλιεῖς περὶ τὸ δέλεαρ ὥσπερ σφαῖραν

συνεχομένων αὐτῶν. Ἀλλ' ἐκ τῶν τοιῶνδε μᾶλλον ἔστι

τεκμήρασθαι ὅτι καθεύδουσιν· πολλάκις γὰρ ἔστιν ἐπιπεσόντα

τοῖς ἰχθύσι λαθεῖν οὕτως ὥστε καὶ τῇ χειρὶ λαβεῖν ἢ πατάξαντα

15 λαθεῖν· ὑπὸ δὲ τὸν καιρὸν τοῦτον ἠρεμοῦσι σφόδρα,

καὶ κινοῦσιν οὐδὲν πλὴν ἠρέμα τὸ οὐραῖον. Δῆλον δὲ γίνεται

ὅτι καθεύδει καὶ ταῖς φοραῖς, ἄν τι κινηθῇ ἡσυχαζόντων αὐτῶν·

φέρεται γὰρ ὥσπερ ἐξ ὕπνου ὄντα. Ἔτι δ' ἐν ταῖς πυρίαις

ἁλίσκονται διὰ τὸ καθεύδειν. Πολλάκις δὲ καὶ οἱ θυννοσκόποι

20 περιβάλλονται καθεύδοντας· δῆλον δ' ἐκ τοῦ ἡσυχάζοντας

καὶ τὰ λευκὰ ὑποφαίνοντας ἁλίσκεσθαι. Καθεύδουσι δὲ τῆς

νυκτὸς μᾶλλον ἢ τῆς ἡμέρας οὕτως ὥστε βαλλόντων μὴ κινεῖσθαι.

Τὰ δὲ πλεῖστα καθεύδουσι τῆς γῆς ἢ τῆς ἄμμου ἢ

λίθου τινὸς ἐχόμενοι ἐν τῷ βυθῷ, ἢ ἀποκρύψαντες ὑπὸ πέτραν

25 ἢ θῖνα ἑαυτούς, οἱ δὲ πλατεῖς ἐν τῇ ἄμμῳ· γινώσκονται

δὲ τῇ σχηματίσει τῆς ἄμμου, καὶ λαμβάνονται τυπτόμενοι

τοῖς τριώδουσιν. Λαμβάνονται δὲ καὶ λάβραξ καὶ

χρύσοφρυς καὶ κεστρεὺς καὶ ὅσοι τοιοῦτοι τριώδοντι ἡμέρας

πολλάκις διὰ τὸ καθεύδειν· εἰ δὲ μή, οὐδὲν δοκεῖ τῶν τοιούτων

30 ληφθῆναι ἂν τριώδοντι. Τὰ δὲ σελάχη οὕτω καθεύδει

ἐνίοτε ὥστε καὶ λαμβάνεσθαι τῇ χειρί. Δελφὶς δὲ καὶ φάλαινα,

1These animals sleep without doubt, although their sleep is of very short duration. The proof of their sleeping cannot be got from the condition of their eyes-for none of these creatures are furnished with eyelids-but can be obtained only from their motionless repose.
Apart from the irritation 5caused by lice and what are nicknamed fleas, fish are met with in a state so motionless that one might easily catch them by hand; and, as a matter of fact, these little creatures, if the fish remain long in one position, will attack them in myriads and devour them. For these parasites are found in the depths of the sea, and are so numerous that they devour 10any bait made of fish's flesh if it be left long on the ground at the bottom; and fishermen often draw up a cluster of them, all clinging on to the bait.
But it is from the following facts that we may more reasonably infer that fishes sleep. Very often it is possible to take a fish off its guard so far as to catch hold of it or to give it a blow unawares; 15and all the while that you are preparing to catch or strike it, the fish is quite still but for a slight motion of the tail. And it is quite obvious that the animal is sleeping, from its movements if any disturbance be made during its repose; for it moves just as you would expect in a creature suddenly awakened. Further, owing to their being asleep, fish may be 20captured by torchlight. The watchmen in the tunny-fishery often take advantage of the fish being asleep to envelop them in a circle of nets; and it is quite obvious that they were thus sleeping by their lying still and allowing the glistening under-parts of their bodies to become visible, while the capture is taking Place. They sleep in the night-time more 25than during the day; and so soundly at night that you may cast the net without making them stir. Fish, as a general rule, sleep close to the ground, or to the sand or to a stone at the bottom, or after concealing themselves under a rock or the ground. Flat fish go to sleep in the sand; and they can be distinguished by the outlines of their shapes in the sand, 30and are caught in this position by being speared with pronged instruments.

537b

1 καὶ ὅσα αὐλὸν ἔχει, ὑπερέχοντα τὸν αὐλὸν καθεύδει

τῆς θαλάττης, δι' οὗ ἀναπνέουσιν ἠρέμα κινοῦντες τὰς

πτέρυγας· καὶ δελφῖνός γε καὶ ῥέγχοντος ἤδη ἠκρόανταί

τινες. Καθεύδει δὲ καὶ τὰ μαλάκια τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ὅνπερ

5 οἱ ἱχθύες· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα τούτοις. Καὶ τὰ

ἔντομα δὲ τῶν ζῴων ὅτι τυγχάνει ὕπνου, διὰ τοιούτων σημείων

ἐστὶ φανερόν· ἡσυχάζουσί τε γὰρ καὶ ἀκινητίζουσιν ἐπιδήλως.

Μάλιστα δ' ἐπὶ τῶν μελιττῶν τοῦτο δῆλον· ἠρεμοῦσι γὰρ

καὶ παύονται βομβοῦσαι τῆς νυκτός. Δῆλον δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν

10 ἐν ποσὶ μάλιστα τῶν τοιούτων· οὐ γὰρ μόνον διὰ τὸ μὴ ὀξὺ

βλέπειν ἡσυχάζουσι τῆς νυκτός (ἅπαντα γὰρ ἀμυδρῶς βλέπει

τὰ σκληρόφθαλμα), ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς τὸ φῶς τῶν λύχνων

ἡσυχάζοντα φαίνονται οὐδὲν ἧττον. Ἐνυπνιάζει δὲ τῶν

ζῴων μάλιστα ἄνθρωπος. Καὶ νέοις μὲν οὖσι καὶ παιδίοις ἔτι

15 πάμπαν οὐ γίνεται ἐνύπνιον, ἀλλ' ἄρχεται τοῖς πλείστοις

περὶ τέτταρα ἔτη ἢ πέντε· ἤδη δὲ γεγόνασι καὶ ἄνδρες καὶ

γυναῖκες οἳ ὅλως οὐδὲν πώποτε ἐνύπνιον εἶδον. Συνέβη δέ τισι

τῶν τοιούτων προϊούσης τῆς ἡλικίας ἰδεῖν ἐνύπνιον, καὶ μετὰ

ταῦτα γενέσθαι περὶ τὸ σῶμα μεταβολὴν τοῖς μὲν εἰς θάνατον

20 τοῖς δ' εἰς ἀρρωστίαν.

Περὶ μὲν οὖν αἰσθήσεως καὶ ὕπνου καὶ ἐγρηγόρσεως τοῦτον

ἔχει τὸν τρόπον.

1The basse, the chrysophrys or gilt-head, the mullet, and fish of the like sort are often caught in the daytime by the prong owing to their having been surprised when sleeping; for it is scarcely probable that fish could be pronged while awake. Cartilaginous fish sleep at times so soundly that they may be 5caught by hand. The dolphin and the whale, and all such as are furnished with a blow-hole, sleep with the blow-hole over the surface of the water, and breathe through the blow-hole while they keep up a quiet flapping of their fins; indeed, some mariners assure us that they have actually heard the dolphin snoring.
Molluscs sleep like fishes, and crustaceans also. It is plain also that 10insects sleep; for there can be no mistaking their condition of motionless repose. In the bee the fact of its being asleep is very obvious; for at night-time bees are at rest and cease to hum. But the fact that insects sleep may be very well seen in the case of common every-day creatures; for not only do they rest at night-time from dimness of vision (and, by the way, all hard-eyed 15creatures see but indistinctly), but even if a lighted candle be presented they continue sleeping quite as soundly.
Of all animals man is most given to dreaming. Children and infants do not dream, but in most cases dreaming comes on at the age of four or five years. Instances have been known of full-grown men and women that have never dreamed at all; in exceptional cases of this kind, 20it has been observed that when a dream occurs in advanced life it prognosticates either actual dissolution or a general break-up of the system.
So much then for sensation and for the phenomena of sleeping and of awakening.

Book 4,Chapter 11 (537b22–538b24)

Τὸ δ' ἄρρεν καὶ θῆλυ τοῖς μὲν ὑπάρχει τῶν ζῴων,

τοῖς δ' οὐχ ὑπάρχει, ἀλλὰ καθ' ὁμοιότητά τινα καὶ τίκτειν

λέγονται καὶ κύειν. Ἔστι δ' οὐδὲν ἄρρεν καὶ θῆλυ ἐν τοῖς μονίμοις,

25 οὐδ' ὅλως ἐν τοῖς ὀστρακοδέρμοις. Ἐν δὲ τοῖς μαλακίοις

καὶ τοῖς μαλακοστράκοις ἔστι τὸ μὲν θῆλυ τὸ δ' ἄρρεν,

καὶ ἐν τοῖς πεζοῖς καὶ ἐν τοῖς δίποσι καὶ τετράποσι καὶ πᾶσιν

ὅσα ἐκ συνδυασμοῦ τίκτει ζῷον ἢ ᾠὸν ἢ σκώληκα. Ἐν

μὲν οὖν τοῖς ἄλλοις γένεσιν ἁπλῶς ἢ ἔστιν ἢ οὐκ ἔστιν, οἷον

30 ἐν μὲν τοῖς τετράποσι πᾶσιν ἔστι τὸ μὲν θῆλυ τὸ δ' ἄρρεν, ἐν

δὲ τοῖς ὀστρακοδέρμοις οὐκ ἔστιν, ἀλλ' ὥσπερ ἐν φυτοῖς τὰ

With regard to sex, some animals are divided into male and female, but others are not so divided but can only be said in a comparative way to bring forth young 25and to be pregnant. In animals that live confined to one spot there is no duality of sex; nor is there such, in fact, in any testaceans. In molluscs and in crustaceans we find male and female: and, indeed, in all animals furnished with feet, biped or quadruped; in short, in all such as by copulation engender either live young or egg or grub. In the several genera, with however certain 30exceptions, there either absolutely is or absolutely is not a duality of sex.

538a

1 μὲν εὔφορά ἐστι τὰ δ' ἄλλ' ἄφορα, οὕτω καὶ ἐν τούτοις.

Ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐντόμοις καὶ τοῖς ἰχθύσιν ἐστὶ τὰ μὲν ὅλως οὐκ

ἔχοντα ταύτην τὴν διαφορὰν ἐπ' οὐδέτερον, οἷον ἔγχελυς οὔτ' ἄρρεν

ἐστὶν οὔτε θῆλυ, οὐδὲ γεννᾷ ἐξ αὑτῆς οὐδέν, ἀλλ' οἱ μὲν φάςκοντες

5 ὅτι τριχώδη καὶ ἑλμινθώδη προσπεφυκότ' ἔχουσαί

ποτέ τινες φαίνονται, οὐ προσθεωρήσαντες τὸ ποῦ ἔχουσιν

ἀσκέπτως λέγουσιν. Οὔτε γὰρ ζῳοτοκεῖ ἄνευ ᾠοτοκίας οὐδὲν

τῶν τοιούτων, ᾠὸν δ' οὐδεμία πώποτε ὦπται ἔχουσα· ὅσα τε

ζῳοτοκεῖ, ἐν τῇ ὑστέρᾳ ἔχει καὶ προσπεφυκότα, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἐν

10 τῇ γαστρί· ἐπέττετο γὰρ ἂν ὥσπερ ἡ τροφή. Ἣν δὲ λέγουσι

διαφορὰν ἄρρενος ἐγχέλυος καὶ θηλείας τῷ τὸν μὲν μείζω

κεφαλὴν ἔχειν καὶ μακροτέραν, τὴν δὲ θήλειαν μικρὰν καὶ

σιμοτέραν, οὐ τοῦ θήλεος ἢ ἄρρενος λέγουσιν, ἀλλὰ τοῦ γένους.

Εἰσὶ δέ τινες ἰχθύες οἳ καλοῦνται ἐπιτραγίαι, γίνονται δὲ τοιοῦτοι

15 τῶν ποταμίων κυπρῖνος καὶ βάλαγρος· οὐκ ἔχουσι δ' οἱ

τοιοῦτοι οὔτε ᾠὸν οὔτε θορὸν οὐδέποτε, ἀλλ' ὅσοι στερεοί εἰσι καὶ

πίονες, ἔντερον μικρὸν ἔχουσι, καὶ δοκοῦσιν ἄριστοι οὗτοι εἶναι.

Ἔτι δ' ἔνια, καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς ὀστρακοδέρμοις καὶ φυτοῖς τὸ

μὲν τίκτον ἐστὶ καὶ γεννῶν, τὸ δ' ὀχεῦον οὐκ ἔστιν, οὕτως

20 ἐν τοῖς ἰχθύσι τὸ τῶν ψηττῶν γένος καὶ τὸ τῶν ἐρυθρίνων

καὶ αἱ χάνναι· πάντα γὰρ τὰ τοιαῦτα ᾠὰ φαίνεται ἔχοντα.

Ἐν μὲν οὖν τοῖς πεζοῖς καὶ ἐναίμοις τῶν ζῴων ὅσα μὴ ᾠοτοκεῖ,

τὰ πλεῖστα μείζω καὶ μακροβιώτερα τὰ ἄρρενα τῶν

θηλειῶν ἐστι, πλὴν ἡμίονος, τούτων δ' αἱ θήλειαι μακροβιώτεραι

25 καὶ μείζους· ἐν δὲ τοῖς ᾠοτόκοις καὶ τοῖς σκωληκοτόκοις,

οἷον ἔν τε τοῖς ἰχθύσι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐντόμων, μείζω τὰ

θήλεα τῶν ἀρρένων ἐστίν, οἷον ὄφεις καὶ φαλάγγια καὶ ἀσκαλαβῶται

καὶ βάτραχοι. Καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἰχθύων δ' ὡσαύτως,

οἷον τά τε σελάχη τὰ μικρὰ καὶ τῶν ἀγελαίων τὰ

30 πλεῖστα, τὰ δὲ πετραῖα πάντα. Ὅτι δὲ μακροβιώτεροι τῶν

1Thus, in quadrupeds the duality is universal, while the absence of such duality is universal in testaceans, and of these creatures, as with plants, some individuals are fruitful and some are not their lying still But among insects and fishes, some cases are found wholly devoid of this duality of sex. For instance, the eel 5is neither male nor female, and can engender nothing. In fact, those who assert that eels are at times found with hair-like or worm-like progeny attached, make only random assertions from not having carefully noticed the locality of such attachments. For no eel nor animal of this kind is ever viviparous unless previously oviparous; and no eel was ever yet seen with an egg. And animals that are viviparous 10have their young in the womb and closely attached, and not in the belly; for, if the embryo were kept in the belly, it would be subjected to the process of digestion like ordinary food. When people rest duality of sex in the eel on the assertion that the head of the male is bigger and longer, and the head of the female smaller and more snubbed, they are taking diversity of species for diversity of 15sex.
There are certain fish that are nicknamed the epitragiae, or capon-fish, and, by the way, fish of this description are found in fresh water, as the carp and the balagrus. This sort of fish never has either roe or milt; but they are hard and fat all over, and are furnished with a small gut; and these fish are regarded as of super-excellent quality.
Again, just as in testaceans and in plants there is 20what bears and engenders, but not what impregnates, so is it, among fishes, with the psetta, the erythrinus, and the channe; for these fish are in all cases found furnished with eggs.
As a general rule, in red-blooded animals furnished with feet and not oviparous, the male is larger and longer-lived than the female (except with the mule, where the female is longer-lived and bigger than the male); 25whereas in oviparous and vermiparous creatures, as in fishes and in insects, the female is larger than the male; as, for instance, with the serpent, the phalangium or venom-spider, the gecko, and the frog. The same difference in size of the sexes is found in fishes, as, for instance, in the smaller cartilaginous fishes, in the greater part of the gregarious species, and in all that live in and about rocks.

538b

1 ἰχθύων αἱ θήλεις τῶν ἀρρένων, δῆλον ἐκ τοῦ παλαιότερα

ἁλίσκεσθαι τὰ θήλεα τῶν ἀρρένων. Ἔστι δὲ τὰ μὲν ἄνω καὶ

πρόσθια πάντων τῶν ζῴων τὰ ἄρρενα κρείττω καὶ ἰσχυρότερα

καὶ εὐοπλότερα, τὰ δ' ὡς ἂν ὀπίσθια καὶ κάτω λεχθέντα

5 τῶν θηλέων. Τοῦτο δὲ καὶ ἐπ' ἀνθρώπων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν

ἄλλων ζῴων τῶν πεζῶν καὶ ζῳοτόκων πάντων ἔχει τὸν αὐτὸν

τρόπον. Καὶ ἀνευρότερον δὲ καὶ ἀναρθρότερον τὸ θῆλυ

μᾶλλον, καὶ λεπτοτριχώτερον, ὅσα τρίχας ἔχει· τὰ δὲ

μὴ τρίχας ἔχοντα κατὰ τὸ ἀνάλογον. Καὶ ὑγροσαρκότερα

10 δὲ τὰ θήλεα τῶν ἀρρένων καὶ γονυκροτώτερα, καὶ αἱ κνῆμαι

λεπτότεραι· τοὺς δὲ πόδας γλαφυρωτέρους, ὅσα τὰ μόρια

ταῦτ' ἔχει τῶν ζῴων. Καὶ περὶ φωνῆς δέ, πάντα τὰ

θήλεα λεπτοφωνότερα καὶ ὀξυφωνότερα, πλὴν βοός, ὅσα

ἔχει φωνήν· οἱ δὲ βόες βαρύτερον φθέγγονται αἱ θήλειαι

15 τῶν ἀρρένων. Τὰ δὲ πρὸς ἀλκὴν ἐν τῇ φύσει ὑπάρχοντα

μόρια, οἷον ὀδόντες καὶ χαυλιόδοντες καὶ κέρατα καὶ πλῆκτρα

καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα τοιαῦτα μόρια, ἐν ἐνίοις μὲν γένεσιν

ὅλως τὰ μὲν ἄρρενα ἔχει τὰ δὲ θήλεα οὐκ ἔχει, οἷον κέρατα

ἔλαφος θήλεια οὐκ ἔχει καὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων τῶν πλῆκτρα

20 ἐχόντων ἐνίων αἱ θήλειαι ὅλως πλῆκτρα οὐκ ἔχουσιν· ὁμοίως

δὲ καὶ χαυλιόδοντας αἱ θήλειαι οὐκ ἔχουσι τῶν ὑῶν. Ἐν ἐνίοις

δ' ὑπάρχει μὲν ἀμφοῖν, ἀλλὰ κρείττω καὶ μᾶλλον τοῖς

ἄρρεσιν, οἷον τὰ κέρατα τῶν ταύρων ἰσχυρότερα τῶν θηλειῶν

βοῶν.

1The fact that the female is longer-lived than the male is inferred from the fact that female fishes are caught older than males. Furthermore, in all animals the upper and front parts are better, stronger, and more thoroughly equipped in the male than in the female, whereas in the female 5those parts are the better that may be termed hinder-parts or underparts. And this statement is applicable to man and to all vivipara that have feet. Again, the female is less muscular and less compactly jointed, and more thin and delicate in the hair-that is, where hair is found; and, where there is no hair, less strongly furnished in some analogous 10substance. And the female is more flaccid in texture of flesh, and more knock-kneed, and the shin-bones are thinner; and the feet are more arched and hollow in such animals as are furnished with feet. And with regard to voice, the female in all animals that are vocal has a thinner and sharper voice than the male; except, by the way, with kine, for the lowing 15and bellowing of the cow has a deeper note than that of the bull. With regard to organs of defence and offence, such as teeth, tusks, horns, spurs, and the like, these in some species the male possesses and the female does not; as, for instance, the hind has no horns, and where the cock-bird has a spur the hen is entirely destitute of the organ; and in like 20manner the sow is devoid of tusks. In other species such organs are found in both sexes, but are more perfectly developed in the male; as, for instance, the horn of the bull is more powerful than the horn of the cow.
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