Louis (Budé, 1964–69) · Thompson (1910)
Thompson (1910)
Greek line numbers are exact. The translations carry no Bekker numbers of their own, so those beside the English are aligned to the Greek: upright = fixed (anchored to this point in the text), italic grey = approximate (interpolated estimate).
Book 2,Chapter 1 (497b6–501b4)
497b
Τῶν δ' ἄλλων ζῴων τὰ μόρια τὰ μὲν κοινὰ πάντων
ἐστίν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, τὰ δὲ γενῶν τινων. Ταὐτὰ δὲ
καὶ ἕτερά ἐστιν ἀλλήλων τὸν ἤδη πολλάκις εἰρημένον τρόπον.
Σχεδὸν γὰρ ὅσα γ' ἐστὶ γένει ἕτερα τῶν ζῴων, καὶ τὰ
10 πλεῖστα τῶν μερῶν ἔχει ἕτερα τῷ εἴδει, καὶ τὰ μὲν κατ'
ἀναλογίαν ἀδιάφορα μόνον, τῷ γένει δ' ἕτερα, τὰ δὲ τῷ
γένει μὲν ταὐτὰ τῷ εἴδει δ' ἕτερα· πολλὰ δὲ τοῖς μὲν
ὑπάρχει, τοῖς δ' οὐχ ὑπάρχει. Τὰ μὲν οὖν τετράποδα καὶ
ζῳοτόκα κεφαλὴν μὲν ἔχει καὶ αὐχένα καὶ τὰ ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ
15 μόρια ἅπαντα, διαφέρει δὲ τὰς μορφὰς τῶν μορίων
ἕκαστον. Καὶ ὅ γε λέων τὸ τοῦ αὐχένος ἔχει ἓν ὀστοῦν, σφονδύλους
δ' οὐκ ἔχει· τὰ δ' ἐντὸς ἀνοιχθεὶς ὅμοια πάντ' ἔχει
κυνί. Ἔχει δὲ τὰ τετράποδα ζῷα καὶ ζῳοτόκα ἀντὶ τῶν
βραχιόνων σκέλη πρόσθια, πάντα μὲν τὰ τετράποδα, μάλιστα
20 δ' ἀνάλογα ταῖς χερσὶ τὰ πολυσχιδῆ αὐτῶν· χρῆται
γὰρ πρὸς πολλὰ ὡς χερσίν. Καὶ τὰ ἀριστερὰ δ' ἧττον
ἔχει ἀπολελυμένα τῶν ἀνθρώπων, πλὴν ἐλέφαντος. Οὗτος
δὲ τά τε περὶ τοὺς δακτύλους ἀδιαρθρωτότερα ἔχει τῶν ποδῶν,
καὶ τὰ πρόσθια σκέλη πολλῷ μείζω. Ἔστι δὲ πενταδάκτυλον,
25 καὶ πρὸς τοῖς ὀπισθίοις σκέλεσι σφυρὰ ἔχει
βραχέα. Ἔχει δὲ μυκτῆρα τοιοῦτον καὶ τηλικοῦτον ὥστε ἀντὶ
χειρῶν ἔχειν αὐτόν· πίνει γὰρ καὶ ἐσθίει ὀρέγων τούτῳ εἰς
τὸ στόμα, καὶ τῷ ἐλεφαντιστῇ ἀνορέγει ἄνω. Τούτῳ καὶ
δένδρα ἀνασπᾷ, καὶ διὰ τοῦ ὕδατος βαδίζων τούτῳ ἀναφυσᾷ.
30 Τῷ δ' ἄκρῳ ἐγκλίνει, οὐ κάμπτεται δέ· χονδρῶδες
γὰρ ἔχει. Μόνον δὲ καὶ ἀμφιδέξιον γίνεται τῶν ἄλλων
ζῴων ἄνθρωπος. Τῷ δὲ στήθει τῷ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου πάντα τὰ
ζῷα ἀνάλογον ἔχει τοῦτο τὸ μόριον, ἀλλ' οὐχ ὅμοιον· ὁ μὲν
γὰρ πλατὺ τὸ στῆθος, τὰ δ' ἄλλα στενόν. Μαστοὺς δ' οὐκ ἔχει
35 οὐδὲν ἐν τῷ πρόσθεν ἀλλ' ἢ ἄνθρωπος· ὁ δ' ἐλέφας ἔχει
With regard to animals in general, some parts or organs are common to all, as has been said, and some are common only to particular genera; the parts, moreover, are identical with or different from one another on the lines already repeatedly laid down. For as a general rule all animals that are 10generically distinct have the majority of their parts or organs different in form or species; and some of them they have only analogically similar and diverse in kind or genus, while they have others that are alike in kind but specifically diverse; and many parts or organs exist in some animals, but not in others.
For instance, viviparous quadrupeds have all a head 15and a neck, and all the parts or organs of the head, but they differ each from other in the shapes of the parts. The lion has its neck composed of one single bone instead of vertebrae; but, when dissected, the animal is found in all internal characters to resemble the dog.
The quadrupedal vivipara instead of arms have forelegs. This is true of all quadrupeds, but such 20of them as have toes have, practically speaking, organs analogous to hands; at all events, they use these fore-limbs for many purposes as hands. And they have the limbs on the left-hand side less distinct from those on the right than man.
The fore-limbs then serve more or less the purpose of hands in quadrupeds, with the exception of the elephant. This latter animal 25has its toes somewhat indistinctly defined, and its front legs are much bigger than its hinder ones; it is five-toed, and has short ankles to its hind feet. But it has a nose such in properties and such in size as to allow of its using the same for a hand. For it eats and drinks by lifting up its food with the aid of this organ into its mouth, and with the same 30organ it lifts up articles to the driver on its back; with this organ it can pluck up trees by the roots, and when walking through water it spouts the water up by means of it; and this organ is capable of being crooked or coiled at the tip, but not of flexing like a joint, for it is composed of gristle.
Of all animals man alone can learn to make equal use of both hands.
For instance, viviparous quadrupeds have all a head 15and a neck, and all the parts or organs of the head, but they differ each from other in the shapes of the parts. The lion has its neck composed of one single bone instead of vertebrae; but, when dissected, the animal is found in all internal characters to resemble the dog.
The quadrupedal vivipara instead of arms have forelegs. This is true of all quadrupeds, but such 20of them as have toes have, practically speaking, organs analogous to hands; at all events, they use these fore-limbs for many purposes as hands. And they have the limbs on the left-hand side less distinct from those on the right than man.
The fore-limbs then serve more or less the purpose of hands in quadrupeds, with the exception of the elephant. This latter animal 25has its toes somewhat indistinctly defined, and its front legs are much bigger than its hinder ones; it is five-toed, and has short ankles to its hind feet. But it has a nose such in properties and such in size as to allow of its using the same for a hand. For it eats and drinks by lifting up its food with the aid of this organ into its mouth, and with the same 30organ it lifts up articles to the driver on its back; with this organ it can pluck up trees by the roots, and when walking through water it spouts the water up by means of it; and this organ is capable of being crooked or coiled at the tip, but not of flexing like a joint, for it is composed of gristle.
Of all animals man alone can learn to make equal use of both hands.
498a
1 μὲν μαστοὺς δύο, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἐν τῷ στήθει ἀλλὰ πρὸς τῷ
στήθει.
Τὰς δὲ κάμψεις τῶν κώλων καὶ τῶν ἔμπροσθεν καὶ
τῶν ὄπισθεν ὑπεναντίας ἔχουσι καὶ ἑαυταῖς καὶ ταῖς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου
5 καμπαῖς, πλὴν ἐλέφαντος. Τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ζῳοτόκοις
τῶν τετραπόδων κάμπτεται τὰ μὲν πρόσθια εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν
τὰ δ' ὀπίσθια εἰς τοὔπισθεν, καὶ ἔχουσι τὰ κοῖλα τῆς περιφερείας
πρὸς ἄλληλα ἀντεστραμμένα· ὁ δ' ἐλέφας οὐχ ὥσπερ
ἔλεγόν τινες, ἀλλὰ συγκαθίζει καὶ κάμπτει τὰ σκέλη,
10 πλὴν οὐ δύναται διὰ τὸ βάρος ἐπ' ἀμφότερα ἅμα, ἀλλ'
ἀνακλίνεται ἢ ἐπὶ τὰ εὐώνυμα ἢ ἐπὶ τὰ δεξιά, καὶ καθεύδει
ἐν τούτῳ τῷ σχήματι, κάμπτει δὲ τὰ ὀπίσθια σκέλη
ὥσπερ ἄνθρωπος. Τοῖς ᾠοτόκοις δέ, ὥσπερ κροκοδείλῳ καὶ
σαύρᾳ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις τοῖς τοιούτοις ἅπασιν, ἀμφότερα
15 τὰ σκέλη καὶ τὰ πρόσθια καὶ τὰ ὀπίσθια εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν
κάμπτεται, μικρὸν εἰς τὸ πλάγιον παρεγκλίνοντα. Ὁμοίως
δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις τοῖς πολύποσιν· πλὴν τὰ μεταξὺ τῶν
ἐσχάτων ἀεὶ ἐπαμφοτερίζει καὶ τὴν κάμψιν ἔχει εἰς τὸ
πλάγιον μᾶλλον. Ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος ἄμφω τὰς καμπὰς τῶν
20 κώλων ἐπὶ ταὐτὸ ἔχει καὶ ἐξ ἐναντίας· τοὺς μὲν γὰρ βραχίονας
εἰς τοὔπισθεν κάμπτει, πλὴν μικρὸν βεβλαίσωται ἐπὶ
τὰ πλάγια τὰ ἐντός, τὰ δὲ σκέλη εἰς τοὔμπροσθεν. Εἰς δὲ
τὸ ὄπισθεν τά τε πρόσθια καὶ τὰ ὀπίσθια οὐδὲν κάμπτει
τῶν ζῴων. Ἐναντίως δὲ τοῖς ἀγκῶσι καὶ τοῖς προσθίοις σκέλεσιν
25 ἡ τῶν ὤμων ἔχει καμπὴ πᾶσι, καὶ τῶν ὄπισθεν γονάτων
ἡ τῶν ἰσχίων, ὥστ' ἐπεὶ ὁ ἄνθρωπος τοῖς ἄλλοις
ἐναντίως κάμπτει, καὶ οἱ ταὔτ' ἔχοντες ἐναντίως. Παραπλησίους
δὲ τὰς καμπὰς ἔχει καὶ ὁ ὄρνις τοῖς τετράποσι
ζῴοις· δίπους γὰρ ὢν τὰ μὲν σκέλη εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν κάμπτει,
30 ἀντὶ δὲ βραχιόνων καὶ σκελῶν τῶν ἔμπροσθεν πτέρυγας
ἔχει, ὧν ἡ κάμψις ἐστὶν εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν. Ἡ δὲ φώκη
ὥσπερ πεπηρωμένον τετράπουν ἐστίν· εὐθὺς γὰρ ἔχει μετὰ
τὴν ὠμοπλάτην τοὺς πόδας ὁμοίους χερσίν, ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ τῆς
ἄρκτου· πενταδάκτυλοι γάρ εἰσι, καὶ ἕκαστος τῶν δακτύλων
1All animals have a part analogous to the chest in man, but not similar to his; for the chest in man is broad, but that of all other animals is narrow. Moreover, no other animal but man has breasts in front; the elephant, certainly, has two breasts, not however in the chest, but near it.
Moreover, also, 5animals have the flexions of their fore and hind limbs in directions opposite to one another, and in directions the reverse of those observed in the arms and legs of man; with the exception of the elephant. In other words, with the viviparous quadrupeds the front legs bend forwards and the hind ones backwards, and the concavities of the two pairs of limbs thus face one another.
The 10elephant does not sleep standing, as some were wont to assert, but it bends its legs and settles down; only that in consequence of its weight it cannot bend its leg on both sides simultaneously, but falls into a recumbent position on one side or the other, and in this position it goes to sleep. And it bends its hind legs just as a man bends his legs.
In the case of the ovipara, as 15the crocodile and the lizard and the like, both pairs of legs, fore and hind, bend forwards, with a slight swerve on one side. The flexion is similar in the case of the multipeds; only that the legs in between the extreme ends always move in a manner intermediate between that of those in front and those behind, and accordingly bend sideways rather than backwards or forwards. But 20man bends his arms and his legs towards the same point, and therefore in opposite ways: that is to say, he bends his arms backwards, with just a slight inclination inwards, and his legs frontwards. No animal bends both its fore-limbs and hind-limbs backwards; but in the case of all animals the flexion of the shoulders is in the opposite direction to that of the elbows or the joints 25of the forelegs, and the flexure in the hips to that of the knees of the hind-legs: so that since man differs from other animals in flexion, those animals that possess such parts as these move them contrariwise to man.
Birds have the flexions of their limbs like those of the quadrupeds; for, although bipeds, they bend their legs backwards, and instead of arms or front legs have 30wings which bend frontwards.
The seal is a kind of imperfect or crippled quadruped; for just behind the shoulder-blade its front feet are placed, resembling hands, like the front paws of the bear; for they are furnished with five toes, and each of the toes has three flexions and a nail of inconsiderable size.
Moreover, also, 5animals have the flexions of their fore and hind limbs in directions opposite to one another, and in directions the reverse of those observed in the arms and legs of man; with the exception of the elephant. In other words, with the viviparous quadrupeds the front legs bend forwards and the hind ones backwards, and the concavities of the two pairs of limbs thus face one another.
The 10elephant does not sleep standing, as some were wont to assert, but it bends its legs and settles down; only that in consequence of its weight it cannot bend its leg on both sides simultaneously, but falls into a recumbent position on one side or the other, and in this position it goes to sleep. And it bends its hind legs just as a man bends his legs.
In the case of the ovipara, as 15the crocodile and the lizard and the like, both pairs of legs, fore and hind, bend forwards, with a slight swerve on one side. The flexion is similar in the case of the multipeds; only that the legs in between the extreme ends always move in a manner intermediate between that of those in front and those behind, and accordingly bend sideways rather than backwards or forwards. But 20man bends his arms and his legs towards the same point, and therefore in opposite ways: that is to say, he bends his arms backwards, with just a slight inclination inwards, and his legs frontwards. No animal bends both its fore-limbs and hind-limbs backwards; but in the case of all animals the flexion of the shoulders is in the opposite direction to that of the elbows or the joints 25of the forelegs, and the flexure in the hips to that of the knees of the hind-legs: so that since man differs from other animals in flexion, those animals that possess such parts as these move them contrariwise to man.
Birds have the flexions of their limbs like those of the quadrupeds; for, although bipeds, they bend their legs backwards, and instead of arms or front legs have 30wings which bend frontwards.
The seal is a kind of imperfect or crippled quadruped; for just behind the shoulder-blade its front feet are placed, resembling hands, like the front paws of the bear; for they are furnished with five toes, and each of the toes has three flexions and a nail of inconsiderable size.
498b
1 καμπὰς ἔχει τρεῖς καὶ ὄνυχα οὐ μέγαν· οἱ δ'
ὀπίσθιοι πόδες πενταδάκτυλοι μέν εἰσι, καὶ τὰς καμπὰς καὶ
τοὺς ὄνυχας ὁμοίους ἔχουσι τοῖς προσθίοις, τῷ δὲ σχήματι παραπλήσιοι
ταῖς τῶν ἰχθύων οὐραῖς εἰσιν.
5 Αἱ δὲ κινήσεις τῶν ζῴων τῶν μὲν τετραπόδων καὶ πολυπόδων
κατὰ διάμετρόν εἰσι, καὶ ἑστᾶσιν οὕτως· ἡ δ' ἀρχὴ
ἀπὸ τῶν δεξιῶν πᾶσιν. Κατὰ σκέλος δὲ βαδίζουσιν ὅ τε
λέων καὶ αἱ κάμηλοι ἀμφότεραι, αἵ τε Βακτριαναὶ καὶ
αἱ Ἀράβιαι. Τὸ δὲ κατὰ σκέλος ἐστὶν ὅτε οὐ προβαίνει τῷ
10 ἀριστερῷ τὸ δεξιόν, ἀλλ' ἐπακολουθεῖ.
Ἔχουσι δὲ τὰ τετράποδα ζῷα, ὅσα μὲν ὁ ἄνθρωπος
μόρια ἔχει ἐν τῷ πρόσθεν, κάτω ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις, τὰ δ'
ὀπίσθια ἐν τοῖς πρανέσιν. Ἔτι δὲ τὰ πλεῖστα κέρκον ἔχει·
καὶ γὰρ ἡ φώκη μικρὰν ἔχει, ὁμοίαν τῇ τοῦ ἐλάφου. Περὶ
15 δὲ τῶν πιθηκοειδῶν ζῴων ὕστερον διορισθήσεται.
Πάντα δ' ὅσα τετράποδα καὶ ζῳοτόκα, δασέα ὡς εἰπεῖν
ἐστι, καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὀλιγότριχον καὶ μικρότριχον
πλὴν τῆς κεφαλῆς, τὴν δὲ κεφαλὴν δασύτατον
τῶν ζῴων. Ἔτι δὲ τῶν μὲν ἄλλων ζῴων τῶν ἐχόντων τρίχας
20 τὰ πρανῆ δασύτερα, τὰ δ' ὕπτια ἢ λεῖα πάμπαν ἢ ἧττον
δασέα· ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος τοὐναντίον. Καὶ βλεφαρίδας ὁ μὲν ἄνθρωπος
ἐπ' ἄμφω ἔχει, καὶ ἐν μασχάλαις ἔχει τρίχας
καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς ἥβης· τῶν δ' ἄλλων οὐδὲν οὔτε τούτων οὐδέτερον
οὔτε τὴν κάτω βλεφαρίδα, ἀλλὰ κάτωθεν τοῦ βλεφάρου
25 ἐνίοις μαναὶ τρίχες πεφύκασιν. Αὐτῶν δὲ τῶν τετραπόδων
καὶ τρίχας ἐχόντων τῶν μὲν ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα δασύ, καθάπερ
ὑὸς καὶ ἄρκτου καὶ κυνός· τὰ δὲ δασύτερα τὸν αὐχένα
ὁμοίως πάντῃ, οἷον ὅσα χαίτην ἔχει, ὥσπερ λέων· τὰ δ'
ἐπὶ τῷ πρανεῖ τοῦ αὐχένος ἀπὸ τῆς κεφαλῆς μέχρι τῆς
30 ἀκρωμίας, οἷον ὅσα λοφιὰν ἔχει, ὥσπερ ἵππος καὶ ὀρεὺς
καὶ τῶν ἀγρίων καὶ κερατοφόρων βόνασος. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ
ἱππέλαφος καλούμενος ἐπὶ τῇ ἀκρωμίᾳ χαίτην καὶ τὸ θηρίον
τὸ πάρδιον ὀνομαζόμενον· ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς κεφαλῆς ἐπὶ τὴν
ἀκρωμίαν λεπτὴν ἑκάτερον· ἰδίᾳ δ' ὁ ἱππέλαφος πώγωνα
1The hind feet are also furnished with five toes; in their flexions and nails they resemble the front feet, and in shape they resemble a fish's tail.
The movements of animals, quadruped and multiped, are crosswise, or in diagonals, and their equilibrium in standing posture is maintained 5crosswise; and it is always the limb on the right-hand side that is the first to move. The lion, however, and the two species of camels, both the Bactrian and the Arabian, progress by an amble; and the action so called is when the animal never overpasses the right with the left, but always follows close upon it.
Whatever parts men have in front, these parts 10quadrupeds have below, in or on the belly; and whatever parts men have behind, these parts quadrupeds have above on their backs. Most quadrupeds have a tail; for even the seal has a tiny one resembling that of the stag. Regarding the tails of the pithecoids we must give their distinctive properties by and by animal All viviparous quadrupeds are hair-coated, 15whereas man has only a few short hairs excepting on the head, but, so far as the head is concerned, he is hairier than any other animal. Further, of hair-coated animals, the back is hairier than the belly, which latter is either comparatively void of hair or smooth and void of hair altogether. With man the reverse is the case.
Man also has upper and lower 20eyelashes, and hair under the armpits and on the pubes. No other animal has hair in either of these localities, or has an under eyelash; though in the case of some animals a few straggling hairs grow under the eyelid.
Of hair-coated quadrupeds some are hairy all over the body, as the pig, the bear, and the dog; others are especially hairy on the neck and all 25round about it, as is the case with animals that have a shaggy mane, such as the lion; others again are especially hairy on the upper surface of the neck from the head as far as the withers, namely, such as have a crested mane, as in the case with the horse, the mule, and, among the undomesticated horned animals, the bison.
The so-called hippelaphus also 30has a mane on its withers, and the animal called pardion, in either case a thin mane extending from the head to the withers; the hippelaphus has, exceptionally, a beard by the larynx. Both these animals have horns and are cloven-footed; the female, however, of the hippelaphus has no horns.
The movements of animals, quadruped and multiped, are crosswise, or in diagonals, and their equilibrium in standing posture is maintained 5crosswise; and it is always the limb on the right-hand side that is the first to move. The lion, however, and the two species of camels, both the Bactrian and the Arabian, progress by an amble; and the action so called is when the animal never overpasses the right with the left, but always follows close upon it.
Whatever parts men have in front, these parts 10quadrupeds have below, in or on the belly; and whatever parts men have behind, these parts quadrupeds have above on their backs. Most quadrupeds have a tail; for even the seal has a tiny one resembling that of the stag. Regarding the tails of the pithecoids we must give their distinctive properties by and by animal All viviparous quadrupeds are hair-coated, 15whereas man has only a few short hairs excepting on the head, but, so far as the head is concerned, he is hairier than any other animal. Further, of hair-coated animals, the back is hairier than the belly, which latter is either comparatively void of hair or smooth and void of hair altogether. With man the reverse is the case.
Man also has upper and lower 20eyelashes, and hair under the armpits and on the pubes. No other animal has hair in either of these localities, or has an under eyelash; though in the case of some animals a few straggling hairs grow under the eyelid.
Of hair-coated quadrupeds some are hairy all over the body, as the pig, the bear, and the dog; others are especially hairy on the neck and all 25round about it, as is the case with animals that have a shaggy mane, such as the lion; others again are especially hairy on the upper surface of the neck from the head as far as the withers, namely, such as have a crested mane, as in the case with the horse, the mule, and, among the undomesticated horned animals, the bison.
The so-called hippelaphus also 30has a mane on its withers, and the animal called pardion, in either case a thin mane extending from the head to the withers; the hippelaphus has, exceptionally, a beard by the larynx. Both these animals have horns and are cloven-footed; the female, however, of the hippelaphus has no horns.
499a
1 ἔχει κατὰ τὸν λάρυγγα. Ἔστι δ' ἀμφότερα κερατοφόρα
καὶ διχαλά· ἡ δὲ θήλεια ἱππέλαφος οὐκ ἔχει κέρατα. Τὸ
δὲ μέγεθός ἐστι τούτου τοῦ ζῴου ἐλάφῳ προσεμφερές. Γίνονται
δ' οἱ ἱππέλαφοι ἐν Ἀραχώταις, οὗπερ καὶ οἱ βόες οἱ
5 ἄγριοι. Διαφέρουσι δ' οἱ ἄγριοι τῶν ἡμέρων ὅσον περ οἱ ὕες
οἱ ἄγριοι πρὸς τοὺς ἡμέρους· μέλανές τε γάρ εἰσι καὶ ἰσχυροὶ
τῷ εἴδει καὶ ἐπίγρυποι, τὰ δὲ κέρατα ἐξυπτιάζοντα
ἔχουσι μᾶλλον· τὰ δὲ τῶν ἱππελάφων κέρατα παραπλήσια
τοῖς τῆς δορκάδος εἰσίν. Ὁ δ' ἐλέφας ἥκιστα δασύς ἐστι
10 τῶν τετραπόδων. Ἀκολουθοῦσι δὲ κατὰ τὸ σῶμα καὶ αἱ
κέρκοι δασύτητι καὶ ψιλότητι, ὅσων αἱ κέρκοι μέγεθος
ἔχουσιν· ἔνια γὰρ μικρὰν ἔχει πάμπαν.
Αἱ δὲ κάμηλοι ἴδιον ἔχουσι παρὰ τἆλλα τετράποδα
τὸν καλούμενον ὕβον ἐπὶ τῷ νώτῳ. Διαφέρουσι δ' αἱ Βάκτριαι
15 τῶν Ἀραβίων· αἱ μὲν γὰρ δύο ἔχουσιν ὕβους, αἱ δ' ἕνα μόνον,
ἄλλον δ' ἔχουσιν ὕβον τοιοῦτον οἷον ἄνω ἐν τοῖς κάτω,
ἐφ' οὗ, ὅταν κατακλιθῇ εἰς γόνατα, ἐστήρικται τὸ ἄλλο
σῶμα. Θηλὰς μὲν οὖν ἔχει τέτταρας ἡ κάμηλος ὥσπερ βοῦς,
καὶ κέρκον ὁμοίαν ὄνῳ, τὸ δ' αἰδοῖον ὄπισθεν. Καὶ γόνυ δ' ἔχει
20 ἐν ἑκάστῳ τῷ σκέλει ἕν, καὶ τὰς καμπὰς οὐ πλείους, ὥσπερ
λέγουσί τινες, ἀλλὰ φαίνεται διὰ τὴν ὑπόσταλσιν τῆς κοιλίας.
Καὶ ἀστράγαλον ὅμοιον μὲν βοΐ, ἰσχνὸν δὲ καὶ μικρὸν
ὡς κατὰ τὸ μέγεθος. Ἔστι δὲ διχαλὸν καὶ οὐκ ἄμφωδον, διχαλὸν
δ' ὧδε. Ἐκ μὲν τοῦ ὄπισθεν μικρὸν ἔσχισται μέχρι τῆς
25 δευτέρας καμπῆς τῶν δακτύλων· τὰ δ' ἔμπροσθεν ἔσχισται
μικρόν, ὅσον ἄχρι τῆς πρώτης καμπῆς τῶν δακτύλων ἐπ'
ἄκρῳ, τέτταρα· καὶ ἔστι τι καὶ διὰ μέσου τῶν σχισμάτων,
ὥσπερ τοῖς χησίν. Ὁ δὲ πούς ἐστι κάτωθεν σαρκώδης, ὥσπερ
καὶ οἱ τῶν ἄρκτων· διὸ καὶ τὰς εἰς πόλεμον ἰούσας ὑποδοῦσι
30 καρβατίναις, ὅταν ἀλγήσωσιν.
Πάντα δὲ τὰ τετράποδα ὀστώδη τὰ σκέλη ἔχει καὶ
νευρώδη καὶ ἄσαρκα· ὅλως δὲ καὶ τἆλλα ζῷα ἅπαντα,
1This latter animal resembles the stag in size; it is found in the territory of the Arachotae, where the wild cattle also are found. Wild cattle differ from their domesticated congeners just as the wild boar differs from the domesticated one. That is to say they are black, strong 5looking, with a hook-nosed muzzle, and with horns lying more over the back. The horns of the hippelaphus resemble those of the gazelle.
The elephant, by the way, is the least hairy of all quadrupeds. With animals, as a general rule, the tail corresponds with the body as regards thickness or thinness of hair-coating; that is, with animals that have long 10tails, for some creatures have tails of altogether insignificant size.
Camels have an exceptional organ wherein they differ from all other animals, and that is the so-called 'hump' on their back. The Bactrian camel differs from the Arabian; for the former has two humps and the latter only one, though it has, by the way, a kind of a hump below like the one 15above, on which, when it kneels, the weight of the whole body rests. The camel has four teats like the cow, a tail like that of an ass, and the privy parts of the male are directed backwards. It has one knee in each leg, and the flexures of the limb are not manifold, as some say, although they appear to be so from the constricted shape of the region 20of the belly. It has a huckle-bone like that of kine, but meagre and small in proportion to its bulk. It is cloven-footed, and has not got teeth in both jaws; and it is cloven footed in the following way: at the back there is a slight cleft extending as far up as the second joint of the toes; and in front there are small hooves on the tip of the first 25joint of the toes; and a sort of web passes across the cleft, as in geese. The foot is fleshy underneath, like that of the bear; so that, when the animal goes to war, they protect its feet, when they get sore, with sandals.
The legs of all quadrupeds are bony, sinewy, and fleshless; and in point of fact such is the case with all animals that are furnished 30with feet, with the exception of man. They are also unfurnished with buttocks; and this last point is plain in an especial degree in birds.
The elephant, by the way, is the least hairy of all quadrupeds. With animals, as a general rule, the tail corresponds with the body as regards thickness or thinness of hair-coating; that is, with animals that have long 10tails, for some creatures have tails of altogether insignificant size.
Camels have an exceptional organ wherein they differ from all other animals, and that is the so-called 'hump' on their back. The Bactrian camel differs from the Arabian; for the former has two humps and the latter only one, though it has, by the way, a kind of a hump below like the one 15above, on which, when it kneels, the weight of the whole body rests. The camel has four teats like the cow, a tail like that of an ass, and the privy parts of the male are directed backwards. It has one knee in each leg, and the flexures of the limb are not manifold, as some say, although they appear to be so from the constricted shape of the region 20of the belly. It has a huckle-bone like that of kine, but meagre and small in proportion to its bulk. It is cloven-footed, and has not got teeth in both jaws; and it is cloven footed in the following way: at the back there is a slight cleft extending as far up as the second joint of the toes; and in front there are small hooves on the tip of the first 25joint of the toes; and a sort of web passes across the cleft, as in geese. The foot is fleshy underneath, like that of the bear; so that, when the animal goes to war, they protect its feet, when they get sore, with sandals.
The legs of all quadrupeds are bony, sinewy, and fleshless; and in point of fact such is the case with all animals that are furnished 30with feet, with the exception of man. They are also unfurnished with buttocks; and this last point is plain in an especial degree in birds.
499b
1 ὅσα ἔχει πόδας, ἐκτὸς ἀνθρώπου. Ἔτι δ' ἀνίσχια· καὶ
γὰρ οἱ ὄρνιθες ἔτι μᾶλλον τοῦτο πεπόνθασιν. Ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος
τοὐναντίον· σαρκώδη γὰρ ἔχει σχεδὸν μάλιστα τοῦ σώματος
τὰ ἰσχία καὶ τοὺς μηροὺς καὶ τὰς κνήμας· αἱ γὰρ καλούμεναι
5 γαστροκνημίαι ἐν ταῖς κνήμαις εἰσὶ σαρκώδεις.
Τῶν δὲ τετραπόδων καὶ ἐναίμων καὶ ζῳοτόκων τὰ μέν
ἐστι πολυσχιδῆ, ὥσπερ αἱ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου χεῖρες καὶ οἱ πόδες
(πολυδάκτυλα γὰρ ἔνιά ἐστιν, οἷον λέων, κύων, πάρδαλις),
τὰ δὲ δισχιδῆ, καὶ ἀντὶ τῶν ὀνύχων χηλὰς ἔχει, ὥσπερ
10 πρόβατον καὶ αἲξ καὶ ἔλαφος καὶ ἵππος ὁ ποτάμιος· τὰ
δ' ἀσχιδῆ, οἷον τὰ μώνυχα, ὥσπερ ἵππος καὶ ὀρεύς. Τὸ
δὲ τῶν ὑῶν γένος ἐπαμφοτερίζει· εἰσὶ γὰρ καὶ ἐν Ἰλλυριοῖς
καὶ ἐν Παιονίᾳ καὶ ἄλλοθι μώνυχες ὕες. Τὰ μὲν οὖν
διχαλὰ δύο ἔχει σχίσεις ὄπισθεν· τοῖς δὲ μώνυξι τοῦτ' ἐστὶ
15 συνεχές. Ἔστι δὲ καὶ τὰ μὲν κερατοφόρα τῶν ζῴων τὰ δ'
ἄκερα. Τὰ μὲν οὖν πλεῖστα τῶν ἐχόντων κέρατα διχαλὰ
κατὰ φύσιν ἐστίν, οἷον βοῦς καὶ ἔλαφος καὶ αἴξ· μώνυχον
δὲ καὶ δίκερων οὐδὲν ὦπται. Μονοκέρατα δὲ καὶ μώνυχα
ὀλίγα, οἷον ὁ Ἰνδικὸς ὄνος. Μονόκερων δὲ καὶ διχαλὸν
20 ὄρυξ. Καὶ ἀστράγαλον δ' ὁ Ἰνδικὸς ὄνος ἔχει τῶν μωνύχων
μόνον· ἡ γὰρ ὗς, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη πρότερον, ἐπαμφοτερίζει,
διὸ καὶ οὐ καλλιαστράγαλόν ἐστιν. Τῶν δὲ διχαλῶν πολλὰ
ἔχει ἀστράγαλον. Πολυσχιδὲς δ' οὐδὲν ὦπται τοιοῦτον ἔχον
ἀστράγαλον, ὥσπερ οὐδ' ἄνθρωπος, ἀλλ' ἡ μὲν λὺγξ ὅμοιον
25 ἡμιαστραγαλίῳ, ὁ δὲ λέων, οἷόν περ πλάττουσι, λαβυρινθώδη.
Πάντα δὲ τὰ ἔχοντα ἀστραγάλους ἐν τοῖς ὄπισθεν ἔχει
σκέλεσιν. Ἔχει δ' ὀρθὸν τὸν ἀστράγαλον ἐν τῇ καμπῇ, τὸ
μὲν πρανὲς ἔξω, τὸ δ' ὕπτιον εἴσω, καὶ τὰ μὲν κῷα ἐντὸς
ἐστραμμένα πρὸς ἄλληλα, τὰ δὲ χῖα καλούμενα ἔξω, καὶ
30 τὰς κεραίας ἄνω. Ἡ μὲν οὖν θέσις τῶν ἀστραγάλων τοῖς
ἔχουσι πᾶσι τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον. Διχαλὰ δ' ἅμα καὶ
χαίτην ἔχοντα καὶ κέρατα δύο κεκαμμένα εἰς αὑτά ἐστιν
1It is the reverse with man; for there is scarcely any part of the body in which man is so fleshy as in the buttock, the thigh, and the calf; for the part of the leg called gastroenemia or is fleshy.
Of blooded and viviparous quadrupeds some have the foot cloven into many parts, as is the case with the 5hands and feet of man (for some animals, by the way, are many-toed, as the lion, the dog, and the pard); others have feet cloven in twain, and instead of nails have hooves, as the sheep, the goat, the deer, and the hippopotamus; others are uncloven of foot, such for instance as the solid-hooved animals, the horse and the mule. Swine are either cloven-footed or uncloven-footed; 10for there are in Illyria and in Paeonia and elsewhere solid-hooved swine. The cloven-footed animals have two clefts behind; in the solid-hooved this part is continuous and undivided.
Furthermore, of animals some are horned, and some are not so. The great majority of the horned animals are cloven-footed, as the ox, the stag, the goat; and a solid-hooved animal with a pair of 15horns has never yet been met with. But a few animals are known to be singled-horned and single-hooved, as the Indian ass; and one, to wit the oryx, is single horned and cloven-hooved.
Of all solid-hooved animals the Indian ass alone has an astragalus or huckle-bone; for the pig, as was said above, is either solid-hooved or cloven-footed, and consequently has no well-formed 20huckle-bone. Of the cloven footed many are provided with a huckle-bone. Of the many-fingered or many-toed, no single one has been observed to have a huckle-bone, none of the others any more than man. The lynx, however, has something like a hemiastragal, and the lion something resembling the sculptor's 'labyrinth'. All the animals that have a huckle-bone have it in the hinder 25legs. They have also the bone placed straight up in the joint; the upper part, outside; the lower part, inside; the sides called Coa turned towards one another, the sides called Chia outside, and the keraiae or 'horns' on the top. This, then, is the position of the hucklebone in the case of all animals provided with the part.
Some animals are, at one and the same time, furnished 30with a mane and furnished also with a pair of horns bent in towards one another, as is the bison (or aurochs), which is found in Paeonia and Maedica.
Of blooded and viviparous quadrupeds some have the foot cloven into many parts, as is the case with the 5hands and feet of man (for some animals, by the way, are many-toed, as the lion, the dog, and the pard); others have feet cloven in twain, and instead of nails have hooves, as the sheep, the goat, the deer, and the hippopotamus; others are uncloven of foot, such for instance as the solid-hooved animals, the horse and the mule. Swine are either cloven-footed or uncloven-footed; 10for there are in Illyria and in Paeonia and elsewhere solid-hooved swine. The cloven-footed animals have two clefts behind; in the solid-hooved this part is continuous and undivided.
Furthermore, of animals some are horned, and some are not so. The great majority of the horned animals are cloven-footed, as the ox, the stag, the goat; and a solid-hooved animal with a pair of 15horns has never yet been met with. But a few animals are known to be singled-horned and single-hooved, as the Indian ass; and one, to wit the oryx, is single horned and cloven-hooved.
Of all solid-hooved animals the Indian ass alone has an astragalus or huckle-bone; for the pig, as was said above, is either solid-hooved or cloven-footed, and consequently has no well-formed 20huckle-bone. Of the cloven footed many are provided with a huckle-bone. Of the many-fingered or many-toed, no single one has been observed to have a huckle-bone, none of the others any more than man. The lynx, however, has something like a hemiastragal, and the lion something resembling the sculptor's 'labyrinth'. All the animals that have a huckle-bone have it in the hinder 25legs. They have also the bone placed straight up in the joint; the upper part, outside; the lower part, inside; the sides called Coa turned towards one another, the sides called Chia outside, and the keraiae or 'horns' on the top. This, then, is the position of the hucklebone in the case of all animals provided with the part.
Some animals are, at one and the same time, furnished 30with a mane and furnished also with a pair of horns bent in towards one another, as is the bison (or aurochs), which is found in Paeonia and Maedica.
500a
1 ἔνια τῶν ζῴων, οἷον ὁ βόνασος, ὃς γίνεται περὶ τὴν
Παιονίαν καὶ τὴν Μαιδικήν. Πάντα δ' ὅσα κερατοφόρα, τετράποδά
ἐστιν, εἰ μή τι κατὰ μεταφορὰν λέγεται ἔχειν κέρας
καὶ λόγου χάριν, ὥσπερ τοὺς περὶ Θήβας ὄφεις οἱ Αἰγύπτιοί
5 φασιν, ἔχοντας ἐπανάστασιν ὅσον προφάσεως χάριν.
Τῶν δ' ἐχόντων κέρας δι' ὅλου μὲν ἔχει στερεὸν μόνον ἔλαφος,
τὰ δ' ἄλλα κοῖλα μέχρι τινός, τὸ δ' ἔσχατον στερεόν.
Τὸ μὲν οὖν κοῖλον ἐκ τοῦ δέρματος πέφυκε μᾶλλον·
ὃ δὲ περὶ τοῦτο περιήρμοσται τὸ στερεὸν ἐκ τῶν ὀστῶν, οἷον τὰ
10 κέρατα τῶν βοῶν. Ἀποβάλλει δὲ τὰ κέρατα μόνον ἔλαφος
κατ' ἔτος, ἀρξάμενος ἀπὸ διετοῦς, καὶ πάλιν φύει· τὰ δ'
ἄλλα συνεχῶς ἔχει, ἐὰν μή τι βίᾳ πηρωθῇ.
Ἔτι δὲ περί τε τοὺς μαστοὺς ὑπεναντίως ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις
ζῴοις ὑπάρχει πρὸς αὑτά τε καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἄνθρωπον, καὶ
15 περὶ τὰ ὄργανα τὰ χρήσιμα πρὸς τὴν ὀχείαν. Τὰ μὲν γὰρ
ἔμπροσθεν ἔχει τοὺς μαστοὺς ἐν τῷ στήθει ἢ πρὸς τῷ στήθει,
καὶ δύο μαστοὺς καὶ δύο θηλάς, ὥσπερ ἄνθρωπος καὶ ἐλέφας,
καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον. Καὶ γὰρ ὁ ἐλέφας ἔχει
τοὺς μαστοὺς δύο περὶ τὰς μασχάλας· ἔχει δ' ἡ θήλεια
20 τοὺς μαστοὺς μικροὺς παντελῶς καὶ οὐ κατὰ λόγον
τοῦ σώματος, ὥστ' ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου μὴ πάνυ ὁρᾶν· ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ
οἱ ἄρρενες μαστούς, ὥσπερ αἱ θήλειαι, μικροὺς παντελῶς. Ἡ
δ' ἄρκτος τέτταρας. Τὰ δὲ δύο μὲν μαστοὺς ἔχει, ἐν τοῖς
μηροῖς δ' ἔχει, καὶ τὰς θηλὰς δύο, ὥσπερ πρόβατον· τὰ
25 δὲ τέτταρας θηλάς, ὥσπερ βοῦς. Τὰ δ' οὔτ' ἐν τῷ στήθει
ἔχει τοὺς μαστοὺς οὔτ' ἐν τοῖς μηροῖς, ἀλλ' ἐν τῇ γαστρί, οἷον
κύων καὶ ὗς, καὶ πολλούς, οὐ πάντας δ' ἴσους. Τὰ μὲν οὖν
ἄλλα πλείους ἔχει, ἡ δὲ πάρδαλις τέτταρας ἐν τῇ γαστρί, ἡ δὲ
λέαινα δύο ἐν τῇ γαστρί. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ἡ κάμηλος μαστοὺς
30 δύο καὶ θηλὰς τέτταρας, ὥσπερ ὁ βοῦς. Τῶν δὲ μωνύχων
τὰ ἄρρενα οὐκ ἔχουσι μαστούς, πλὴν ὅσα ἐοίκασι τῇ μητρί,
ὅπερ συμβαίνει ἐπὶ τῶν ἵππων.
Τὰ δ' αἰδοῖα τῶν μὲν ἀρρένων τὰ μὲν ἔξω ἔχει, οἷον
ἄνθρωπος καὶ ἵππος καὶ ἄλλα πολλά, τὰ δ' ἐντός, ὥςπερ
1But all animals that are horned are quadrupedal, except in cases where a creature is said metaphorically, or by a figure of speech, to have horns; just as the Egyptians describe the serpents found in the neighbourhood of Thebes, while in point of fact the creatures have merely protuberances 5on the head sufficiently large to suggest such an epithet.
Of horned animals the deer alone has a horn, or antler, hard and solid throughout. The horns of other animals are hollow for a certain distance, and solid towards the extremity. The hollow part is derived from the skin, but the core round which this is wrapped-the hard part-is derived from the 10bones; as is the case with the horns of oxen. The deer is the only animal that sheds its horns, and it does so annually, after reaching the age of two years, and again renews them. All other animals retain their horns permanently, unless the horns be damaged by accident.
Again, with regard to the breasts and the generative organs, animals differ widely from 15one another and from man. For instance, the breasts of some animals are situated in front, either in the chest or near to it, and there are in such cases two breasts and two teats, as is the case with man and the elephant, as previously stated. For the elephant has two breasts in the region of the axillae; and the female elephant has two breasts insignificant 20in size and in no way proportionate to the bulk of the entire frame, in fact, so insignificant as to be invisible in a sideways view; the males also have breasts, like the females, exceedingly small. The she-bear has four breasts. Some animals have two breasts, but situated near the thighs, and teats, likewise two in number, as the sheep; others have 25four teats, as the cow. Some have breasts neither in the chest nor at the thighs, but in the belly, as the dog and pig; and they have a considerable number of breasts or dugs, but not all of equal size. Thus the shepard has four dugs in the belly, the lioness two, and others more. The she-camel, also, has two dugs and four teats, like the cow. Of solid-hooved 30animals the males have no dugs, excepting in the case of males that take after the mother, which phenomenon is observable in horses.
Of male animals the genitals of some are external, as is the case with man, the horse, and most other creatures; some are internal, as with the dolphin.
Of horned animals the deer alone has a horn, or antler, hard and solid throughout. The horns of other animals are hollow for a certain distance, and solid towards the extremity. The hollow part is derived from the skin, but the core round which this is wrapped-the hard part-is derived from the 10bones; as is the case with the horns of oxen. The deer is the only animal that sheds its horns, and it does so annually, after reaching the age of two years, and again renews them. All other animals retain their horns permanently, unless the horns be damaged by accident.
Again, with regard to the breasts and the generative organs, animals differ widely from 15one another and from man. For instance, the breasts of some animals are situated in front, either in the chest or near to it, and there are in such cases two breasts and two teats, as is the case with man and the elephant, as previously stated. For the elephant has two breasts in the region of the axillae; and the female elephant has two breasts insignificant 20in size and in no way proportionate to the bulk of the entire frame, in fact, so insignificant as to be invisible in a sideways view; the males also have breasts, like the females, exceedingly small. The she-bear has four breasts. Some animals have two breasts, but situated near the thighs, and teats, likewise two in number, as the sheep; others have 25four teats, as the cow. Some have breasts neither in the chest nor at the thighs, but in the belly, as the dog and pig; and they have a considerable number of breasts or dugs, but not all of equal size. Thus the shepard has four dugs in the belly, the lioness two, and others more. The she-camel, also, has two dugs and four teats, like the cow. Of solid-hooved 30animals the males have no dugs, excepting in the case of males that take after the mother, which phenomenon is observable in horses.
Of male animals the genitals of some are external, as is the case with man, the horse, and most other creatures; some are internal, as with the dolphin.
500b
1 δελφίς· καὶ τῶν ἔξω δ' ἐχόντων τὰ μὲν εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν,
ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ εἰρημένα, καὶ τούτων τὰ μὲν ἀπολελυμένα
καὶ τὸ αἰδοῖον καὶ τοὺς ὄρχεις, ὥσπερ ἄνθρωπος, τὰ
δὲ πρὸς τῇ γαστρὶ καὶ τοὺς ὄρχεις καὶ τὸ αἰδοῖον, καὶ τὰ
5 μὲν μᾶλλον τὰ δ' ἧττον ἀπολελυμένα· οὐ γὰρ ὡσαύτως
ἀπολέλυται κάπρῳ καὶ ἵππῳ τοῦτο τὸ μόριον. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ
ὁ ἐλέφας τὸ αἰδοῖον ὅμοιον μὲν ἵππῳ, μικρὸν δὲ καὶ οὐκ
ἀνὰ λόγον τοῦ σώματος, τοὺς δ' ὄρχεις οὐκ ἔξω φανερούς,
ἀλλ' ἐντὸς περὶ τοὺς νεφρούς· διὸ καὶ ἐν τῇ ὀχείᾳ ἀπαλλάττεται
10 ταχέως. Ἡ δὲ θήλεια τὸ αἰδοῖον ἔχει ἐν τῷ τόπῳ οὗ
τὰ οὔθατα τῶν προβάτων ἐστίν· ὅταν δ' ὀργᾷ ὀχεύεσθαι, ἀνασπᾷ
ἄνω καὶ ἐκτρέπει πρὸς τὸν ἔξω τόπον, ὥστε ῥᾳδίαν
εἶναι τῷ ἄρρενι τὴν ὀχείαν· ἀνέρρωγε δ' ἐπιεικῶς ἐπὶ πολὺ
τὸ αἰδοῖον. Τοῖς μὲν οὖν πλείστοις αὐτῶν τὰ αἰδοῖα τοῦτον
15 ἔχει τὸν τρόπον· ἔνια δ' ὀπισθουρητικά ἐστιν, οἷον λὺγξ καὶ
λέων καὶ κάμηλος καὶ δασύπους. Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἄρρενα ὑπεναντίως
ἔχει ἀλλήλοις, καθάπερ εἴρηται, τὰ δὲ θήλεα πάντα
ὀπισθουρητικά ἐστιν· καὶ γὰρ ὁ θῆλυς ἐλέφας ἔχει τὰ αἰδοῖα
ὑπὸ τοῖς μηροῖς, καθάπερ καὶ τἆλλα. Τῶν δ' αἰδοίων
20 διαφορὰ πολλή ἐστιν. Τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἔχει χονδρῶδες τὸ αἰδοῖον
καὶ σαρκῶδες, ὥσπερ ἄνθρωπος· τὸ μὲν οὖν σαρκῶδες
οὐκ ἐμφυσᾶται, τὸ δὲ χονδρῶδες ἔχει αὔξησιν. Τὰ δὲ νευρώδη,
οἷον καμήλου καὶ ἐλάφου, τὰ δ' ὀστώδη, ὥσπερ ἀλώπεκος
καὶ λύκου καὶ ἴκτιδος καὶ γαλῆς· καὶ γὰρ ἡ γαλῆ
25 ὀστοῦν ἔχει τὸ αἰδοῖον.
Πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ὁ μὲν ἄνθρωπος τελειωθεὶς τὰ ἄνω ἔχει
ἐλάττω τῶν κάτωθεν, τὰ δ' ἄλλα ζῷα, ὅσα ἔναιμα, τοὐναντίον.
Λέγομεν δ' ἄνω τὸ ἀπὸ κεφαλῆς μέχρι τοῦ μορίου
ᾗ ἡ τοῦ περιττώματός ἐστιν ἔξοδος, κάτω δὲ τὸ ἀπὸ τούτου
30 λοιπόν. Τοῖς μὲν οὖν ἔχουσι πόδας τὸ ὀπίσθιόν ἐστι σκέλος
τὸ κάτωθεν μέρος πρὸς τὸ μέγεθος, τοῖς δὲ μὴ ἔχουσιν οὐραὶ
καὶ κέρκοι καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα. Τελειούμενα μὲν οὖν τοιαῦτ' ἐστίν,
ἐν δὲ τῇ αὐξήσει διαφέρει· ὁ μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωπος μείζω τὰ
ἄνω ἔχει νέος ὢν ἢ τὰ κάτω, αὐξανόμενος δὲ μεταβάλλει
1With those that have the organ externally placed, the organ in some cases is situated in front, as in the cases already mentioned, and of these some have the organ detached, both penis and testicles, as man; others have penis and testicles closely attached to the belly, some more closely, some less; for this organ is not 5detached in the wild boar nor in the horse.
The penis of the elephant resembles that of the horse; compared with the size of the animal it is disproportionately small; the testicles are not visible, but are concealed inside in the vicinity of the kidneys; and for this reason the male speedily gives over in the act of intercourse. The genitals of the female are situated where the udder is in sheep; when she 10is in heat, she draws the organ back and exposes it externally, to facilitate the act of intercourse for the male; and the organ opens out to a considerable extent.
With most animals the genitals have the position above assigned; but some animals discharge their urine backwards, as the lynx, the lion, the camel, and the hare. Male animals differ from one another, as has been said, in this particular, but 15all female animals are retromingent: even the female elephant like other animals, though she has the privy part below the thighs.
In the male organ itself there is a great diversity. For in some cases the organ is composed of flesh and gristle, as in man; in such cases, the fleshy part does not become inflated, but the gristly part is subject to enlargement. In other cases, the organ is composed of fibrous 20tissue, as with the camel and the deer; in other cases it is bony, as with the fox, the wolf, the marten, and the weasel; for this organ in the weasel has a bone.
When man has arrived at maturity, his upper part is smaller than the lower one, but with all other blooded animals the reverse holds good. By the 'upper' part we mean all extending from the head down to the parts used for excretion of residuum, 25and by the 'lower' part else. With animals that have feet the hind legs are to be rated as the lower part in our comparison of magnitudes, and with animals devoid of feet, the tail, and the like.
When animals arrive at maturity, their properties are as above stated; but they differ greatly from one another in their growth towards maturity. For instance, man, when young, has his upper part larger than the 30lower, but in course of growth he comes to reverse this condition; and it is owing to this circumstance that-an exceptional instance, by the way-he does not progress in early life as he does at maturity, but in infancy creeps on all fours; but some animals, in growth, retain the relative proportion of the parts, as the dog.
The penis of the elephant resembles that of the horse; compared with the size of the animal it is disproportionately small; the testicles are not visible, but are concealed inside in the vicinity of the kidneys; and for this reason the male speedily gives over in the act of intercourse. The genitals of the female are situated where the udder is in sheep; when she 10is in heat, she draws the organ back and exposes it externally, to facilitate the act of intercourse for the male; and the organ opens out to a considerable extent.
With most animals the genitals have the position above assigned; but some animals discharge their urine backwards, as the lynx, the lion, the camel, and the hare. Male animals differ from one another, as has been said, in this particular, but 15all female animals are retromingent: even the female elephant like other animals, though she has the privy part below the thighs.
In the male organ itself there is a great diversity. For in some cases the organ is composed of flesh and gristle, as in man; in such cases, the fleshy part does not become inflated, but the gristly part is subject to enlargement. In other cases, the organ is composed of fibrous 20tissue, as with the camel and the deer; in other cases it is bony, as with the fox, the wolf, the marten, and the weasel; for this organ in the weasel has a bone.
When man has arrived at maturity, his upper part is smaller than the lower one, but with all other blooded animals the reverse holds good. By the 'upper' part we mean all extending from the head down to the parts used for excretion of residuum, 25and by the 'lower' part else. With animals that have feet the hind legs are to be rated as the lower part in our comparison of magnitudes, and with animals devoid of feet, the tail, and the like.
When animals arrive at maturity, their properties are as above stated; but they differ greatly from one another in their growth towards maturity. For instance, man, when young, has his upper part larger than the 30lower, but in course of growth he comes to reverse this condition; and it is owing to this circumstance that-an exceptional instance, by the way-he does not progress in early life as he does at maturity, but in infancy creeps on all fours; but some animals, in growth, retain the relative proportion of the parts, as the dog.
501a
1 τοὐναντίον (διὸ καὶ μόνον οὐ τὴν αὐτὴν κίνησιν ποιεῖται
τῆς πορείας νέος ὢν καὶ τελειωθείς, ἀλλὰ τὸ πρῶτον παιδίον
ὂν ἕρπει τετραποδίζον), τὰ δ' ἀνὰ λόγον ἀποδίδωσι τὴν
αὔξησιν, οἷον κύων. Ἔνια δὲ τὸ πρῶτον ἐλάττω τὰ ἄνω, τὰ δὲ
5 κάτω μείζω ἔχει, αὐξανόμενα δὲ τὰ ἄνω γίνεται μείζω,
ὥσπερ τὰ λοφοῦρα· τούτων γὰρ οὐδὲν γίνεται μεῖζον ὕστερον
τὸ ἀπὸ τῆς ὁπλῆς μέχρι τοῦ ἰσχίου.
Ἔστι δὲ καὶ περὶ τοὺς ὀδόντας πολλὴ διαφορὰ τοῖς
ἄλλοις ζῴοις καὶ πρὸς αὑτὰ καὶ πρὸς ἄνθρωπον. Ἔχει
10 μὲν γὰρ πάντα ὀδόντας ὅσα τετράποδα καὶ ἔναιμα καὶ
ζῳοτόκα, ἀλλὰ πρῶτον τὰ μέν ἐστιν ἀμφώδοντα, τὰ δ' οὐκ
ἀμφώδοντα. Ὅσα μὲν γάρ ἐστι κερατοφόρα, οὐκ ἀμφώδοντα·
οὐ γὰρ ἔχει τοὺς προσθίους ὀδόντας ἐπὶ τῆς ἄνω σιαγόνος.
Ἔστι δ' ἔνια οὐκ ἀμφώδοντα καὶ ἀκέρατα, οἷον κάμηλος. Καὶ
15 τὰ μὲν χαυλιόδοντας ἔχει, ὥσπερ οἱ ἄρρενες ὕες, τὰ δ' οὐκ
ἔχει. Ἔτι δὲ τὰ μέν ἐστι καρχαρόδοντα αὐτῶν, οἷον λέων
καὶ πάρδαλις καὶ κύων, τὰ δ' ἀνεπάλλακτα, οἷον ἵππος
καὶ βοῦς· καρχαρόδοντα γάρ ἐστιν ὅσα ἐπαλλάττει τοὺς
ὀδόντας τοὺς ὀξεῖς. Ἅμα δὲ χαυλιόδοντα καὶ κέρας οὐδὲν
20 ἔχει ζῷον, οὐδὲ καρχαρόδουν καὶ τούτων θάτερον. Τὰ δὲ
πλεῖστα τοὺς προσθίους ἔχει ὀξεῖς, τοὺς δ' ἐντὸς πλατεῖς. Ἡ
δὲ φώκη καρχαρόδουν ἐστὶ πᾶσι τοῖς ὀδοῦσιν, ὡς ἐπαλλάττουσα
τῷ γένει τῶν ἰχθύων· οἱ γὰρ ἰχθύες πάντες σχεδὸν καρχαρόδοντές
εἰσιν. Διστοίχους δ' ὀδόντας οὐδὲν ἔχει τούτων τῶν
25 γενῶν. Ἔστι δέ τι, εἰ δεῖ πιστεῦσαι Κτησίᾳ· ἐκεῖνος γὰρ τὸ
ἐν Ἰνδοῖς θηρίον, ᾧ ὄνομα εἶναι μαρτιχόραν, τοῦτ' ἔχειν ἐπ'
ἀμφότερά φησι τριστοίχους τοὺς ὀδόντας· εἶναι δὲ μέγεθος
μὲν ἡλίκον λέοντα καὶ δασὺ ὁμοίως, καὶ πόδας ἔχειν ὁμοίους,
πρόσωπον δὲ καὶ ὦτα ἀνθρωποειδές, τὸ δ' ὄμμα
30 γλαυκόν, τὸ δὲ χρῶμα κινναβάρινον, τὴν δὲ κέρκον ὁμοίαν
τῇ τοῦ σκορπίου τοῦ χερσαίου, ἐν ᾗ κέντρον ἔχειν καὶ τὰς ἀποφυάδας
ἀπακοντίζειν, φθέγγεσθαι δ' ὅμοιον φωνῇ ἅμα
σύριγγος καὶ σάλπιγγος, ταχὺ δὲ θεῖν οὐχ ἧττον τῶν ἐλάφων,
1Some animals at first have the upper part smaller and the lower part larger, and in course of growth the upper part gets to be the larger, as is the case with the bushy-tailed animals such as the horse; for in their case there is never, subsequently to birth, any increase in the part 5extending from the hoof to the haunch.
Again, in respect to the teeth, animals differ greatly both from one another and from man. All animals that are quadrupedal, blooded and viviparous, are furnished with teeth; but, to begin with, some are double-toothed (or fully furnished with teeth in both jaws), and some are not. For instance, horned quadrupeds are 10not double-toothed; for they have not got the front teeth in the upper jaw; and some hornless animals, also, are not double toothed, as the camel. Some animals have tusks, like the boar, and some have not. Further, some animals are saw-toothed, such as the lion, the pard, and the dog; and some have teeth that do not interlock but have flat opposing crowns, 15as the horse and the ox; and by 'saw-toothed' we mean such animals as interlock the sharp-pointed teeth in one jaw between the sharp-pointed ones in the other. No animal is there that possesses both tusks and horns, nor yet do either of these structures exist in any animal possessed of 'saw-teeth'. The front teeth are usually sharp, and the back ones 20blunt. The seal is saw-toothed throughout, inasmuch as he is a sort of link with the class of fishes; for fishes are almost all saw-toothed.
No animal of these genera is provided with double rows of teeth. There is, however, an animal of the sort, if we are to believe Ctesias. He assures us that the Indian wild beast called the 'martichoras' has a triple 25row of teeth in both upper and lower jaw; that it is as big as a lion and equally hairy, and that its feet resemble those of the lion; that it resembles man in its face and ears; that its eyes are blue, and its colour vermilion; that its tail is like that of the land-scorpion; that it has a sting in the tail, and has the faculty of shooting off arrow-wise 30the spines that are attached to the tail; that the sound of its voice is a something between the sound of a pan-pipe and that of a trumpet; that it can run as swiftly as deer, and that it is savage and a man-eater.
Again, in respect to the teeth, animals differ greatly both from one another and from man. All animals that are quadrupedal, blooded and viviparous, are furnished with teeth; but, to begin with, some are double-toothed (or fully furnished with teeth in both jaws), and some are not. For instance, horned quadrupeds are 10not double-toothed; for they have not got the front teeth in the upper jaw; and some hornless animals, also, are not double toothed, as the camel. Some animals have tusks, like the boar, and some have not. Further, some animals are saw-toothed, such as the lion, the pard, and the dog; and some have teeth that do not interlock but have flat opposing crowns, 15as the horse and the ox; and by 'saw-toothed' we mean such animals as interlock the sharp-pointed teeth in one jaw between the sharp-pointed ones in the other. No animal is there that possesses both tusks and horns, nor yet do either of these structures exist in any animal possessed of 'saw-teeth'. The front teeth are usually sharp, and the back ones 20blunt. The seal is saw-toothed throughout, inasmuch as he is a sort of link with the class of fishes; for fishes are almost all saw-toothed.
No animal of these genera is provided with double rows of teeth. There is, however, an animal of the sort, if we are to believe Ctesias. He assures us that the Indian wild beast called the 'martichoras' has a triple 25row of teeth in both upper and lower jaw; that it is as big as a lion and equally hairy, and that its feet resemble those of the lion; that it resembles man in its face and ears; that its eyes are blue, and its colour vermilion; that its tail is like that of the land-scorpion; that it has a sting in the tail, and has the faculty of shooting off arrow-wise 30the spines that are attached to the tail; that the sound of its voice is a something between the sound of a pan-pipe and that of a trumpet; that it can run as swiftly as deer, and that it is savage and a man-eater.
501b
1 καὶ εἶναι ἄγριον καὶ ἀνθρωποφάγον. Ἄνθρωπος μὲν οὖν
βάλλει τοὺς ὀδόντας, βάλλει δὲ καὶ ἄλλα τῶν ζῴων, οἷον
ἵππος καὶ ὀρεὺς καὶ ὄνος. Βάλλει δ' ἄνθρωπος τοὺς προσθίους,
τοὺς δὲ γομφίους οὐδὲν βάλλει τῶν ζῴων. Ὗς δ' ὅλως οὐδένα
5 βάλλει τῶν ὀδόντων.
1Man sheds his teeth, and so do other animals, as the horse, the mule, and the ass. And man sheds his front teeth; but there is no instance of an animal that sheds its molars. The pig sheds none of its teeth at all.
Book 2,Chapter 2 (501b5–13)
Περὶ δὲ τῶν κυνῶν ἀμφισβητεῖται,
καὶ οἱ μὲν ὅλως οὐκ οἴονται βάλλειν οὐδένα αὐτούς, οἱ δὲ τοὺς
κυνόδοντας μόνον· ὦπται δ' ὅτι βάλλει καθάπερ καὶ ἄνθρωπος,
ἀλλὰ λανθάνει διὰ τὸ μὴ βάλλειν πρότερον πρὶν
ὑποφυῶσιν ἐντὸς ἴσοι. Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν
10 ἀγρίων εἰκὸς συμβαίνειν, ἐπεὶ λέγονταί γε τοὺς κυνόδοντας
μόνον βάλλειν. Τοὺς δὲ κύνας διαγινώσκουσι τοὺς νεωτέρους
καὶ πρεσβυτέρους ἐκ τῶν ὀδόντων· οἱ μὲν γὰρ νέοι λευκοὺς
ἔχουσι καὶ ὀξεῖς τοὺς ὀδόντας, οἱ δὲ πρεσβύτεροι μέλανας καὶ
ἀμβλεῖς.
With regard to dogs some doubts are entertained, as some contend that they shed no teeth 5whatever, and others that they shed the canines, but those alone; the fact being, that they do shed their teeth like man, but that the circumstance escapes observation, owing to the fact that they never shed them until equivalent teeth have grown within the gums to take the place of the shed ones. We shall be justified in supposing that the case is similar with wild beasts in 10general; for they are said to shed their canines only. Dogs can be distinguished from one another, the young from the old, by their teeth; for the teeth in young dogs are white and sharp-pointed; in old dogs, black and blunt.
Book 2,Chapter 3 (501b14–23)
Ἐναντίως δὲ πρὸς τἆλλα ζῷα καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἵππων
15 συμβαίνει· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἄλλα ζῷα πρεσβύτερα γινόμενα
μελαντέρους ἔχει τοὺς ὀδόντας, ὁ δ' ἵππος λευκοτέρους. Ὁρίζουσι
δὲ τούς τε ὀξεῖς καὶ τοὺς πλατεῖς οἱ καλούμενοι κυνόδοντες,
ἀμφοτέρων μετέχοντες τῆς μορφῆς· κάτωθεν μὲν γὰρ
πλατεῖς, ἄνωθεν δ' εἰσὶν ὀξεῖς. Ἔχουσι δὲ πλείους οἱ ἄρρενες
20 τῶν θηλειῶν ὀδόντας καὶ ἐν ἀνθρώποις καὶ ἐπὶ προβάτων
καὶ αἰγῶν καὶ ὑῶν· ἐπὶ δὲ τῶν ἄλλων οὐ τεθεώρηταί πω.
Ὅσοι δὲ πλείους ἔχουσι, μακροβιώτεροι ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ εἰσιν,
οἱ δ' ἐλάττους καὶ ἀραιόδοντες ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ βραχυβιώτεροι.
In this particular, the horse differs entirely from animals in general: for, generally speaking, as animals grow older their teeth get blacker, but the 15horse's teeth grow whiter with age.
The so-called 'canines' come in between the sharp teeth and the broad or blunt ones, partaking of the form of both kinds; for they are broad at the base and sharp at the tip.
Males have more teeth than females in the case of men, sheep, goats, and swine; in the case of other animals observations have not yet been made: but the more teeth they 20have the more long-lived are they, as a rule, while those are short-lived in proportion that have teeth fewer in number and thinly set.
The so-called 'canines' come in between the sharp teeth and the broad or blunt ones, partaking of the form of both kinds; for they are broad at the base and sharp at the tip.
Males have more teeth than females in the case of men, sheep, goats, and swine; in the case of other animals observations have not yet been made: but the more teeth they 20have the more long-lived are they, as a rule, while those are short-lived in proportion that have teeth fewer in number and thinly set.
Book 2,Chapter 4 (501b24–28)
Φύονται δ' οἱ τελευταῖοι τοῖς ἀνθρώποις γόμφιοι,
25 οὓς καλοῦσι κραντῆρας, περὶ τὰ εἴκοσιν ἔτη καὶ ἀνδράσι καὶ
γυναιξίν. Ἤδη δέ τισι γυναιξὶ καὶ ὀγδοήκοντα ἐτῶν οὔσαις
ἔφυσαν γόμφιοι ἐν τοῖς ἐσχάτοις, πόνον παρασχόντες ἐν
τῇ ἀνατολῇ, καὶ ἀνδράσιν ὡσαύτως· τοῦτο δὲ συμβαίνει
ὅσοις ἂν μὴ ἐν τῇ ἡλικίᾳ ἀνατείλωσιν οἱ κραντῆρες.
The last teeth to come in man are molars called 'wisdom-teeth', which come at the age of twenty years, in the case of both sexes. Cases have been known in women upwards. of eighty years old where at the very close of life the wisdom-teeth have 25come up, causing great pain in their coming; and cases have been known of the like phenomenon in men too. This happens, when it does happen, in the case of people where the wisdom-teeth have not come up in early years.
Book 2,Chapter 5 (501b29–502a2)
Ὁ δ'
30 ἐλέφας ὀδόντας μὲν ἔχει τέτταρας ἐφ' ἑκάτερα, οἷς κατεργάζεται
τὴν τροφήν (λεαίνει δ' ὥσπερ κρίμνα), χωρὶς δὲ
τούτων ἄλλους δύο τοὺς μεγάλους. Ὁ μὲν οὖν ἄρρην τούτους
ἔχει μεγάλους τε καὶ ἀνασίμους, ἡ δὲ θήλεια μικροὺς καὶ ἐξ
The elephant has four teeth on either side, by which it munches its food, grinding it like so much barley-meal, and, quite apart from these, it has its great 30teeth, or tusks, two in number. In the male these tusks are comparatively large and curved upwards; in the female, they are comparatively small and point in the opposite direction; that is, they look downwards towards the ground.
502a
1 ἐναντίας τοῖς ἄρρεσιν· κάτω γὰρ οἱ ὀδόντες βλέπουσιν.
Ἔχει δ' ὁ ἐλέφας εὐθὺς γενόμενος ὀδόντας, τοὺς μέντοι
μεγάλους ἀδήλους τὸ πρῶτον.
1The elephant is furnished with teeth at birth, but the tusks are not then visible.
Book 2,Chapter 6 (502a3–4)
Γλῶτταν δ' ἔχει μικράν τε σφόδρα
καὶ ἐντός, ὥστε ἔργον ἐστὶν ἰδεῖν.
The tongue of the elephant is exceedingly small, and situated far back in the mouth, so that it is difficult to get a sight of it.
Book 2,Chapter 7 (502a5–15)
5 Ἔχουσι δὲ τὰ ζῷα καὶ τὰ μεγέθη διαφέροντα τοῦ
στόματος. Τῶν μὲν γάρ ἐστι τὰ στόματα ἀνερρωγότα, ὥςπερ
κυνὸς καὶ λέοντος καὶ πάντων τῶν καρχαροδόντων, τὰ
δὲ μικρόστομα, ὥσπερ ἄνθρωπος, τὰ δὲ μεταξύ, οἷον
τὸ τῶν ὑῶν γένος. Ὁ δ' ἵππος ὁ ποτάμιος ὁ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ
10 χαίτην μὲν ἔχει ὥσπερ ἵππος, διχαλὸν δ' ἐστὶν ὥςπερ
βοῦς, τὴν δ' ὄψιν σιμός. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ἀστράγαλον ὥςπερ
τὰ διχαλά, καὶ χαυλιόδοντας ὑποφαινομένους, κέρκον
δ' ὑός, φωνὴν δ' ἵππου· μέγεθος δ' ἐστὶν ἡλίκον ὄνος. Τοῦ δὲ
δέρματος τὸ πάχος ὥστε δόρατα ποιεῖσθαι ἐξ αὐτοῦ. Τὰ
15 δ' ἐντὸς ἔχει ὅμοια ἵππῳ καὶ ὄνῳ.
Furthermore, animals differ from one another 5in the relative size of their mouths. In some animals the mouth opens wide, as is the case with the dog, the lion, and with all the saw-toothed animals; other animals have small mouths, as man; and others have mouths of medium capacity, as the pig and his congeners.
(The Egyptian hippopotamus has a mane like a horse, 10is cloven-footed like an ox, and is snub-nosed. It has a huckle-bone like cloven-footed animals, and tusks just visible; it has the tail of a pig, the neigh of a horse, and the dimensions of an ass. The hide is so thick that spears are made out of it. In its internal organs it resembles the horse and the ass.)
(The Egyptian hippopotamus has a mane like a horse, 10is cloven-footed like an ox, and is snub-nosed. It has a huckle-bone like cloven-footed animals, and tusks just visible; it has the tail of a pig, the neigh of a horse, and the dimensions of an ass. The hide is so thick that spears are made out of it. In its internal organs it resembles the horse and the ass.)
Book 2,Chapter 8 (502a16–502b23)
Ἔνια δὲ τῶν ζῴων ἐπαμφοτερίζει τὴν φύσιν τῷ τ'
ἀνθρώπῳ καὶ τοῖς τετράποσιν, οἷον πίθηκοι καὶ κῆβοι καὶ
κυνοκέφαλοι. Ἔστι δ' ὁ μὲν κῆβος πίθηκος ἔχων οὐράν. Καὶ
οἱ κυνοκέφαλοι δὲ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχουσι μορφὴν τοῖς πιθήκοις,
20 πλὴν μείζονές τ' εἰσὶ καὶ ἰσχυρότεροι καὶ τὰ πρόσωπα
ἔχοντες κυνοειδέστερα, ἔτι δ' ἀγριώτερά τε τὰ ἤθη καὶ τοὺς
ὀδόντας ἔχουσι κυνοειδεστέρους καὶ ἰσχυροτέρους. Οἱ δὲ πίθηκοι
δασεῖς μέν εἰσι τὰ πρανῆ ὡς ὄντες τετράποδες, καὶ
τὰ ὕπτια δ' ὡσαύτως ὡς ὄντες ἀνθρωποειδεῖς (τοῦτο γὰρ
25 ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἐναντίως ἔχει καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν τετραπόδων,
καθάπερ ἐλέχθη πρότερον)· πλὴν ἥ τε θρὶξ παχεῖα, καὶ
δασεῖς ἐπ' ἀμφότερα σφόδρα εἰσὶν οἱ πίθηκοι. Τὸ δὲ πρόσωπον
ἔχει πολλὰς ὁμοιότητας τῷ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου· καὶ
γὰρ μυκτῆρας καὶ ὦτα παραπλήσια ἔχει, καὶ ὀδόντας
30 ὥσπερ ὁ ἄνθρωπος, καὶ τοὺς προσθίους καὶ τοὺς γομφίους.
Ἔτι δὲ βλεφαρίδας τῶν ἄλλων τετραπόδων ἐπὶ θάτερα οὐκ
ἐχόντων οὗτος ἔχει μὲν λεπτὰς δὲ σφόδρα, καὶ μᾶλλον
τὰς κάτω, καὶ μικρὰς πάμπαν· τὰ γὰρ ἄλλα τετράποδα
ταύτας οὐκ ἔχει. Ἔτι δ' ἐν τῷ στήθει δύο θηλὰς μαστῶν
35 μικρῶν. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ βραχίονας ὥσπερ ἄνθρωπος, πλὴν δασεῖς·
Some 15animals share the properties of man and the quadrupeds, as the ape, the monkey, and the baboon. The monkey is a tailed ape. The baboon resembles the ape in form, only that it is bigger and stronger, more like a dog in face, and is more savage in its habits, and its teeth are more dog-like and more powerful.
Apes are hairy 20on the back in keeping with their quadrupedal nature, and hairy on the belly in keeping with their human form-for, as was said above, this characteristic is reversed in man and the quadruped-only that the hair is coarse, so that the ape is thickly coated both on the belly and on the back. Its face resembles that of 25man in many respects; in other words, it has similar nostrils and ears, and teeth like those of man, both front teeth and molars. Further, whereas quadrupeds in general are not furnished with lashes on one of the two eyelids, this creature has them on both, only very thinly set, especially the under ones; in fact they 30are very insignificant indeed. And we must bear in mind that all other quadrupeds have no under eyelash at all.
The ape has also in its chest two teats upon poorly developed breasts. It has also arms like man, only covered with hair, and it bends these legs like man, with the convexities of both limbs facing one another.
Apes are hairy 20on the back in keeping with their quadrupedal nature, and hairy on the belly in keeping with their human form-for, as was said above, this characteristic is reversed in man and the quadruped-only that the hair is coarse, so that the ape is thickly coated both on the belly and on the back. Its face resembles that of 25man in many respects; in other words, it has similar nostrils and ears, and teeth like those of man, both front teeth and molars. Further, whereas quadrupeds in general are not furnished with lashes on one of the two eyelids, this creature has them on both, only very thinly set, especially the under ones; in fact they 30are very insignificant indeed. And we must bear in mind that all other quadrupeds have no under eyelash at all.
The ape has also in its chest two teats upon poorly developed breasts. It has also arms like man, only covered with hair, and it bends these legs like man, with the convexities of both limbs facing one another.
502b
1 καὶ κάμπτει καὶ τούτους καὶ τὰ σκέλη ὥσπερ
ἄνθρωπος, τὰς περιφερείας πρὸς ἀλλήλας ἀμφοτέρων τῶν
κώλων. Πρὸς δὲ τούτοις χεῖρας καὶ δακτύλους καὶ ὄνυχας
ὁμοίους ἀνθρώπῳ, πλὴν πάντα ταῦτα ἐπὶ τὸ θηριωδέστερον.
5 Ἰδίους δὲ τοὺς πόδας· εἰσὶ γὰρ οἷον χεῖρες μεγάλαι, καὶ οἱ
δάκτυλοι ὥσπερ οἱ τῶν χειρῶν, ὁ μέσος μακρότατος, καὶ
τὸ κάτω τοῦ ποδὸς χειρὶ ὅμοιον, πλὴν ἐπιμηκέστερον τοῦ
τῆς χειρός, ἐπὶ τὰ ἔσχατα τεῖνον, καθάπερ θέναρ· τοῦτο
δ' ἐπ' ἄκρου σκληρότερον, κακῶς καὶ ἀμυδρῶς μιμούμενον
10 πτέρνην. Κέχρηται δὲ τοῖς ποσὶν ἐπ' ἄμφω, καὶ ὡς χερσὶ
καὶ ὡς ποσί, καὶ συγκάμπτει ὥσπερ χεῖρας. Ἔχει δὲ τὸν
ἀγκῶνα καὶ τὸν μηρὸν βραχεῖς ὡς πρὸς τὸν βραχίονα καὶ
τὴν κνήμην. Ὀμφαλὸν δ' ἐξέχοντα μὲν οὐκ ἔχει, σκληρὸν
δέ τι κατὰ τὸν τόπον τοῦ ὀμφαλοῦ. Τὰ δ' ἄνω τοῦ κάτω
15 πολὺ μείζονα ἔχει, ὥσπερ τὰ τετράποδα· σχεδὸν γὰρ ὡς
πέντε πρὸς τρία ἐστίν. Καὶ διά τε ταῦτα καὶ διὰ τὸ τοὺς
πόδας ἔχειν ὁμοίους χερσὶ καὶ ὡσπερανεὶ συγκειμένους ἐκ
χειρὸς καὶ ποδός (ἐκ μὲν ποδὸς κατὰ τὸ τῆς πτέρνης
ἔσχατον, ἐκ δὲ χειρὸς τἆλλα μέρη· καὶ γὰρ οἱ δάκτυλοι
20 ἔχουσι τὸ καλούμενον θέναρ), διατελεῖ δὲ τὸν πλείω χρόνον
τετράπουν ὂν μᾶλλον ἢ ὀρθόν· καὶ οὔτ' ἰσχία ἔχει ὡς τετράπουν
ὂν οὔτε κέρκον ὡς δίπουν, πλὴν μικρὰν τὸ ὅλον, ὅσον
σημείου χάριν. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ τὸ αἰδοῖον ἡ θήλεια ὅμοιον γυναικί,
ὁ δ' ἄρρην κυνωδέστερον ἢ ὁ ἄνθρωπος.
1In addition, it has hands and fingers and nails like man, only that all these parts are somewhat more beast-like in appearance. Its feet are exceptional in kind. That is, they are like large hands, and the toes are like fingers, with the middle one the longest of all, and the under part 5of the foot is like a hand except for its length, and stretches out towards the extremities like the palm of the hand; and this palm at the after end is unusually hard, and in a clumsy obscure kind of way resembles a heel. The creature uses its feet either as hands or feet, and doubles them up as one doubles a fist. Its upper-arm and thigh are short in proportion 10to the forearm and the shin. It has no projecting navel, but only a hardness in the ordinary locality of the navel. Its upper part is much larger than its lower part, as is the case with quadrupeds; in fact, the proportion of the former to the latter is about as five to three. Owing to this circumstance and to the fact that its feet resemble hands and are 15composed in a manner of hand and of foot: of foot in the heel extremity, of the hand in all else-for even the toes have what is called a 'palm':-for these reasons the animal is oftener to be found on all fours than upright. It has neither hips, inasmuch as it is a quadruped, nor yet a tail, inasmuch as it is a biped, except nor yet a tal by the way that it has 20a tail as small as small can be, just a sort of indication of a tail. The genitals of the female resemble those of the female in the human species; those of the male are more like those of a dog than are those of a man.
Book 2,Chapter 9 (502b24–27)
Οἱ δὲ κῆβοι,
25 καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, ἔχουσι κέρκον. Τὰ δ' ἐντὸς διαιρεθέντα
ὅμοια ἔχουσιν ἀνθρώπῳ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα.
Τὰ μὲν οὖν τῶν εἰς τὸ ἐκτὸς ζῳοτοκούντων μόρια τοῦτον
ἔχει τὸν τρόπον.
The monkey, as has been observed, is furnished with a tail. In all such creatures the internal organs are found under dissection to correspond 25to those of man.
So much then for the properties of the organs of such animals as bring forth their young into the world alive.
So much then for the properties of the organs of such animals as bring forth their young into the world alive.
Book 2,Chapter 10 (502b28–503a14)
Τὰ δὲ τετράποδα μὲν ᾠοτόκα δὲ καὶ ἔναιμα
(οὐδὲν δὲ ᾠοτοκεῖ χερσαῖον καὶ ἔναιμον μὴ τετράπουν ὂν
30 ἢ ἄπουν) κεφαλὴν μὲν ἔχει καὶ αὐχένα καὶ νῶτον καὶ τὰ
πρανῆ καὶ τὰ ὕπτια τοῦ σώματος, ἔτι δὲ σκέλη πρόσθια
καὶ ὀπίσθια καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον τῷ στήθει, ὥσπερ τὰ ζῳοτόκα
τῶν τετραπόδων, καὶ κέρκον τὰ μὲν πλεῖστα μείζω, ὀλίγα
δ' ἐλάττω. Πάντα δὲ πολυδάκτυλα καὶ πολυσχιδῆ ἐστι τὰ
35 τοιαῦτα. Πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ αἰσθητήρια καὶ γλῶτταν πάντα,
Oviparous and blooded quadrupeds-and, by the way, no terrestrial blooded animal is oviparous unless it is quadrupedal or is devoid of feet altogether-are furnished with a head, a neck, a back, upper and under parts, the front legs 30and hind legs, and the part analogous to the chest, all as in the case of viviparous quadrupeds, and with a tail, usually large, in exceptional cases small. And all these creatures are many-toed, and the several toes are cloven apart. Furthermore, they all have the ordinary organs of sensation, including a tongue, with the exception of the Egyptian crocodile.
503a
1 πλὴν ὁ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ κροκόδειλος. Οὗτος δὲ παραπλησίως
τῶν ἰχθύων τισίν· ὅλως μὲν γὰρ οἱ ἰχθύες ἀκανθώδη
καὶ οὐκ ἀπολελυμένην ἔχουσι τὴν γλῶτταν, ἔνιοι δὲ πάμπαν
λεῖον καὶ ἀδιάρθρωτον τὸν τόπον μὴ ἐγκλίναντι σφόδρα τὸ
5 χεῖλος. Ὦτα δ' οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἀλλὰ τὸν πόρον τῆς ἀκοῆς μόνον
πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα· οὐδὲ μαστούς, οὐδ' αἰδοῖον, οὐδ' ὄρχεις ἔξω
φανεροὺς ἀλλ' ἐντός, οὐδὲ τρίχας, ἀλλὰ πάντ' ἐστὶ φολιδωτά.
Ἔτι δὲ καρχαρόδοντα πάντα. Οἱ δὲ κροκόδειλοι οἱ ποτάμιοι
ἔχουσιν ὀφθαλμοὺς μὲν ὑός, ὀδόντας δὲ μεγάλους καὶ
10 χαυλιόδοντας καὶ ὄνυχας ἰσχυροὺς καὶ δέρμα ἄρρηκτον
φολιδωτόν· βλέπουσι δ' ἐν μὲν τῷ ὕδατι φαύλως, ἔξω δ'
ὀξύτατον. Τὴν μὲν οὖν ἡμέραν ἐν τῇ γῇ τὸ πλεῖστον διατρίβει,
τὴν δὲ νύκτα ἐν τῷ ὕδατι· ἀλεεινότερον γάρ ἐστι τῆς
αἰθρίας.
1This latter animal, by the way, resembles certain fishes. For, as a general rule, fishes have a prickly tongue, not free in its movements; though there are some fishes that present a smooth undifferentiated surface where the tongue should be, until you open their mouths 5wide and make a close inspection.
Again, oviparous blooded quadrupeds are unprovided with ears, but possess only the passage for hearing; neither have they breasts, nor a copulatory organ, nor external testicles, but internal ones only; neither are they hair coated, but are in all cases covered with scaly plates. Moreover, they are 10without exception saw-toothed.
River crocodiles have pigs' eyes, large teeth and tusks, and strong nails, and an impenetrable skin composed of scaly plates. They see but poorly under water, but above the surface of it with remarkable acuteness. As a rule, they pass the day-time on land and the nighttime in the water; for the temperature of 15the water is at night-time more genial than that of the open air.
Again, oviparous blooded quadrupeds are unprovided with ears, but possess only the passage for hearing; neither have they breasts, nor a copulatory organ, nor external testicles, but internal ones only; neither are they hair coated, but are in all cases covered with scaly plates. Moreover, they are 10without exception saw-toothed.
River crocodiles have pigs' eyes, large teeth and tusks, and strong nails, and an impenetrable skin composed of scaly plates. They see but poorly under water, but above the surface of it with remarkable acuteness. As a rule, they pass the day-time on land and the nighttime in the water; for the temperature of 15the water is at night-time more genial than that of the open air.
Book 2,Chapter 11 (503a15–503b28)
15 Ὁ δὲ χαμαιλέων ὅλον μὲν τοῦ σώματος ἔχει τὸ σχῆμα
σαυροειδές, τὰ δὲ πλευρὰ κάτω καθήκει συνάπτοντα
πρὸς τὸ ὑπογάστριον, καθάπερ τοῖς ἰχθύσι, καὶ ἡ ῥάχις
ἐπανέστηκεν ὁμοίως τῇ τῶν ἰχθύων. Τὸ δὲ πρόσωπον ὁμοιότατον
τῷ τοῦ χοιροπιθήκου. Κέρκον δ' ἔχει μακρὰν σφόδρα,
20 εἰς λεπτὸν καθήκουσαν καὶ συνελιττομένην ἐπὶ πολύ, καθάπερ
ἱμάντα. Μετεωρότερος δ' ἐστὶ τῇ ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς ἀποστάσει
τῶν σαύρων, τὰς δὲ καμπὰς τῶν σκελῶν καθάπερ οἱ σαῦροι
ἔχει. Τῶν δὲ ποδῶν ἕκαστος αὐτοῦ διχῇ διῄρηται εἰς μέρη
θέσιν ὁμοίαν πρὸς αὑτὰ ἔχοντα οἵανπερ ὁ μέγας ἡμῶν δάκτυλος
25 πρὸς τὸ λοιπὸν τῆς χειρὸς ἀντίθεσιν ἔχει. Ἐπὶ βραχὺ
δὲ καὶ τούτων τῶν μερῶν ἕκαστον διῄρηται εἴς τινας δακτύλους,
τῶν μὲν ἔμπροσθεν ποδῶν τὰ μὲν πρὸς αὐτὸν τρίχα,
τὰ δ' ἐκτὸς δίχα, τῶν δ' ὀπισθίων τὰ μὲν πρὸς αὐτὸν δίχα,
τὰ δ' ἐκτὸς τρίχα. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὀνύχια ἐπὶ τούτων
30 ὅμοια τοῖς τῶν γαμψωνύχων. Τραχὺ δ' ἔχει ὅλον τὸ σῶμα,
καθάπερ ὁ κροκόδειλος. Ὀφθαλμοὺς δ' ἔχει ἐν κοίλῳ
τε κειμένους καὶ μεγάλους σφόδρα καὶ στρογγύλους καὶ δέρματι
ὁμοίῳ τῷ τοῦ λοιποῦ σώματος περιεχομένους. Κατὰ
μέσους δ' αὐτοὺς διαλέλειπται μικρὰ τῇ ὄψει χώρα, δι' ἧς
35 ὁρᾷ· οὐδέποτε δὲ τῷ δέρματι ἐπικαλύπτει τοῦτο. Στρέφει δὲ
The chameleon resembles the lizard in the general configuration of its body, but the ribs stretch downwards and meet together under the belly as is the case with fishes, and the spine sticks up as with the fish. Its face resembles that of the baboon. Its tail is exceedingly 20long, terminates in a sharp point, and is for the most part coiled up, like a strap of leather. It stands higher off the ground than the lizard, but the flexure of the legs is the same in both creatures. Each of its feet is divided into two parts, which bear the same relation to one another that the thumb and the rest of the hand bear 25to one another in man. Each of these parts is for a short distance divided after a fashion into toes; on the front feet the inside part is divided into three and the outside into two, on the hind feet the inside part into two and the outside into three; it has claws also on these parts resembling those of birds of prey. Its body is rough 30all over, like that of the crocodile. Its eyes are situated in a hollow recess, and are very large and round, and are enveloped in a skin resembling that which covers the entire body; and in the middle a slight aperture is left for vision, through which the animal sees, for it never covers up this aperture with the cutaneous envelope.
503b
1 τὸν ὀφθαλμὸν κύκλῳ τὴν ὄψιν ἐπὶ πάντας τοὺς τόπους
μεταβάλλει, καὶ οὕτως ὁρᾷ ὃ βούλεται. Τῆς δὲ χροιᾶς ἡ μεταβολὴ
ἐμφυσωμένῳ αὐτῷ γίνεται· ἔχει δὲ καὶ μέλαιναν
ταύτην, οὐ πόρρω τῆς τῶν κροκοδείλων, καὶ ὠχρὰν καθάπερ
5 οἱ σαῦροι, μέλανι ὥσπερ τὰ παρδάλια διαπεποικιλμένην.
Γίνεται δὲ καθ' ἅπαν τὸ σῶμα αὐτοῦ ἡ τοιαύτη
μεταβολή· καὶ γὰρ οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ συμμεταβάλλουσιν ὁμοίως
τῷ λοιπῷ σώματι καὶ ἡ κέρκος. Ἡ δὲ κίνησις αὐτοῦ νωθὴς
ἰσχυρῶς ἐστι, καθάπερ ἡ τῶν χελωνῶν. Καὶ ἀποθνήσκων τε
10 ὠχρὸς γίνεται, καὶ τελευτήσαντος αὐτοῦ ἡ χροιὰ τοιαύτη
ἐστίν. Τὰ δὲ περὶ τὸν στόμαχον καὶ τὴν ἀρτηρίαν ὁμοίως ἔχει
τοῖς σαύροις κείμενα. Σάρκα δ' οὐδαμοῦ ἔχει πλὴν πρὸς τῇ
κεφαλῇ καὶ ταῖς σιαγόσιν ὀλίγα σαρκία, καὶ περὶ ἄκραν
τὴν τῆς κέρκου πρόσφυσιν. Καὶ αἷμα δ' ἔχει περί τε τὴν
15 καρδίαν μόνον καὶ τὰ ὄμματα καὶ τὸν ἄνω τῆς καρδίας
τόπον, καὶ ὅσα ἀπὸ τούτων φλέβια ἀποτείνει· ἔστι δὲ καὶ
ἐν τούτοις βραχὺ παντελῶς. Κεῖται δὲ καὶ ὁ ἐγκέφαλος
ἀνώτερον μὲν ὀλίγῳ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν, συνεχὴς δὲ τούτοις.
Περιαιρεθέντος δὲ τοῦ ἔξωθεν δέρματος τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν περιέχει
20 τι διαλάμπον διὰ τούτων, οἷον κρίκος χαλκοῦς λεπτός.
Καθ' ἅπαν δ' αὐτοῦ τὸ σῶμα σχεδὸν διατείνουσιν ὑμένες
πολλοὶ καὶ ἰσχυροὶ καὶ πολὺ ὑπερβάλλοντες τῶν περὶ τὰ
λοιπὰ ὑπαρχόντων. Ἐνεργεῖ δὲ καὶ τῷ πνεύματι ἀνατετμημένος
ὅλος ἐπὶ πολὺν χρόνον, βραχείας ἰσχυρῶς ἔτι κινήσεως
25 ἐν αὐτῷ περὶ τὴν καρδίαν οὔσης, καὶ συνάγει διαφερόντως
μὲν τὰ περὶ τὰ πλευρά, οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ
μέρη τοῦ σώματος. Σπλῆνα δ' οὐδαμοῦ ἔχει φανερόν.
Φωλεύει δὲ καθάπερ οἱ σαῦροι.
1It keeps twisting its eyes round and shifting its line of vision in every direction, and thus contrives to get a sight of any object that it wants to see. The change in its colour takes place when it is inflated with air; it is then black, not unlike 5the crocodile, or green like the lizard but black-spotted like the pard. This change of colour takes place over the whole body alike, for the eyes and the tail come alike under its influence. In its movements it is very sluggish, like the tortoise. It assumes a greenish hue in dying, and retains this hue after 10death. It resembles the lizard in the position of the oesophagus and the windpipe. It has no flesh anywhere except a few scraps of flesh on the head and on the jaws and near to the root of the tail. It has blood only round about the heart, the eyes, the region above the heart, and in all the veins extending from 15these parts; and in all these there is but little blood after all. The brain is situated a little above the eyes, but connected with them. When the outer skin is drawn aside from off the eye, a something is found surrounding the eye, that gleams through like a thin ring of copper. Membranes extend well nigh 20over its entire frame, numerous and strong, and surpassing in respect of number and relative strength those found in any other animal. After being cut open along its entire length it continues to breathe for a considerable time; a very slight motion goes on in the region of the heart, and, while contraction is 25especially manifested in the neighbourhood of the ribs, a similar motion is more or less discernible over the whole body. It has no spleen visible. It hibernates, like the lizard.
Book 2,Chapter 12 (503b29–504b12)
Ὁμοίως δ' ἔνια μόρια καὶ οἱ ὄρνιθες τοῖς εἰρημένοις
30 ἔχουσι ζῴοις· καὶ γὰρ κεφαλὴν καὶ αὐχένα πάντ' ἔχει καὶ
νῶτον καὶ τὰ ὕπτια τοῦ σώματος καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον τῷ στήθει·
σκέλη δὲ δύο καθάπερ ἄνθρωπος μάλιστα τῶν ζῴων·
πλὴν κάμπτει εἰς τοὔπισθεν ὁμοίως τοῖς τετράποσιν, ὥσπερ
εἴρηται πρότερον. Χεῖρας δ' οὐδὲ πόδας προσθίους ἔχει, ἀλλὰ
35 πτέρυγας ἴδιον πρὸς τὰ ἄλλα ζῷα. Ἔτι δὲ τὸ ἰσχίον ὅμοιον
Birds also in some parts resemble the above mentioned animals; that is to say, they have in all cases a head, a neck, a back, a belly, 30and what is analogous to the chest. The bird is remarkable among animals as having two feet, like man; only, by the way, it bends them backwards as quadrupeds bend their hind legs, as was noticed previously. It has neither hands nor front feet, but wings-an exceptional structure as compared with other animals.
504a
1 μηρῷ μακρὸν καὶ προσπεφυκὸς μέχρι ὑπὸ μέσην τὴν
γαστέρα, ὥστε δοκεῖν διαιρούμενον μηρὸν εἶναι, τὸν δὲ μηρὸν
μεταξὺ τῆς κνήμης, ἕτερόν τι μέρος. Μεγίστους δὲ τοὺς μηροὺς
ἔχει τὰ γαμψώνυχα τῶν ὀρνίθων, καὶ τὸ στῆθος ἰσχυρότερον
5 τῶν ἄλλων. Πολυώνυχοι δ' εἰσὶ πάντες οἱ ὄρνιθες, ἔτι δὲ
πολυσχιδεῖς τρόπον τινὰ πάντες· τῶν μὲν γὰρ πλείστων διῄρηνται
οἱ δάκτυλοι, τὰ δὲ πλωτὰ στεγανόποδά ἐστι, διηρθρωμένους
δ' ἔχει καὶ χωριστοὺς <τοὺς> δακτύλους. Εἰσὶ δ' ὅσοι
αὐτῶν μετεωρίζονται πάντες τετραδάκτυλοι· τρεῖς μὲν γὰρ εἰς
10 τὸ ἔμπροσθεν ἕνα δ' εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν κείμενον ἔχουσιν οἱ πλεῖςτοι
ἀντὶ πτέρνης· ὀλίγοι δέ τινες δύο μὲν ἔμπροσθεν δύο
δ' ὄπισθεν, οἷον ἡ καλουμένη ἴυγξ. Αὕτη δ' ἐστὶ μικρῷ μὲν
μείζων σπίζης, τὸ δ' εἶδος ποικίλον, ἴδια δ' ἔχει τά τε περὶ
τοὺς δακτύλους καὶ τὴν γλῶτταν ὁμοίαν τοῖς ὄφεσιν· ἔχει
15 γὰρ ἐπὶ μῆκος ἔκτασιν καὶ ἐπὶ τέτταρας δακτύλους, καὶ
πάλιν συστέλλεται εἰς ἑαυτήν. Ἔτι δὲ περιστρέφει τὸν τράχηλον
εἰς τοὐπίσω τοῦ λοιποῦ σώματος ἠρεμοῦντος, καθάπερ
οἱ ὄφεις. Ὄνυχας δ' ἔχει μεγάλους μὲν ὁμοίως μέντοι
πεφυκότας τοῖς τῶν κολοιῶν· τῇ δὲ φωνῇ τρίζει. Στόμα δ' οἱ ὄρνιθες
20 ἔχουσι μὲν ἴδιον δέ· οὔτε γὰρ χείλη οὔτ' ὀδόντας ἔχουσιν,
ἀλλὰ ῥύγχος, οὔτ' ὦτα οὔτε μυκτῆρας, ἀλλὰ τοὺς πόρους τούτων
τῶν αἰσθήσεων, τῶν μὲν μυκτήρων ἐν τῷ ῥύγχει, τῆς
δ' ἀκοῆς ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ. Ὀφθαλμοὺς δὲ πάντες καθάπερ καὶ
τἆλλα ζῷα δύο, ἄνευ βλεφαρίδων. Μύουσι δ' οἱ βαρεῖς τῷ
25 κάτω βλεφάρῳ, σκαρδαμύττουσι δ' ἐκ τοῦ κανθοῦ δέρματι
ἐπιόντι πάντες, οἱ δὲ γλαυκώδεις τῶν ὀρνίθων καὶ τῷ ἄνω
βλεφάρῳ. Τὸ δ' αὐτὸ τοῦτο ποιοῦσι καὶ τὰ φολιδωτά, οἷον
οἱ σαῦροι καὶ τἆλλα τὰ ὁμοιογενῆ τούτοις τῶν ζῴων· μύουσι
γὰρ τῇ κάτω βλεφαρίδι πάντες, οὐ μέντοι σκαρδαμύττουσί
30 γε ὥσπερ οἱ ὄρνιθες. Ἔτι δ' οὔτε φολίδας οὔτε τρίχας ἔχουσιν,
ἀλλὰ πτερά· τὰ δὲ πτερὰ ἔχει καυλὸν ἅπαντα. Καὶ οὐρὰν
μὲν οὐκ ἔχουσιν, ὀρροπύγιον δέ, οἱ μὲν μακροσκελεῖς καὶ στεγανόποδες
βραχύ, οἱ δ' ἐναντίοι μέγα. Καὶ οὗτοι μὲν πρὸς
τῇ γαστρὶ τοὺς πόδας ἔχοντες πέτονται, οἱ δὲ μικρουρροπύγιοι
35 ἐκτεταμένους. Καὶ γλῶτταν ἅπαντες, ταύτην δ' ἀνομοίαν· οἱ
1Its haunch-bone is long, like a thigh, and is attached to the body as far as the middle of the belly; so like to a thigh is it that when viewed separately it looks like a real one, while the real thigh is a separate structure betwixt it and the shin. Of all birds those that have crooked talons have the biggest thighs 5and the strongest breasts. All birds are furnished with many claws, and all have the toes separated more or less asunder; that is to say, in the greater part the toes are clearly distinct from one another, for even the swimming birds, although they are web-footed, have still their claws fully articulated and distinctly differentiated from one another. Birds that fly high in air are in all 10cases four-toed: that is, the greater part have three toes in front and one behind in place of a heel; some few have two in front and two behind, as the wryneck.
This latter bird is somewhat bigger than the chaffinch, and is mottled in appearance. It is peculiar in the arrangement of its toes, and resembles the snake in the structure of its tongue; for the creature can protrude its tongue to the 15extent of four finger-breadths, and then draw it back again. Moreover, it can twist its head backwards while keeping all the rest of its body still, like the serpent. It has big claws, somewhat resembling those of the woodpecker. Its note is a shrill chirp.
Birds are furnished with a mouth, but with an exceptional one, for they have neither lips nor teeth, but a beak. Neither have they ears 20nor a nose, but only passages for the sensations connected with these organs: that for the nostrils in the beak, and that for hearing in the head. Like all other animals they all have two eyes, and these are devoid of lashes. The heavy-bodied (or gallinaceous) birds close the eye by means of the lower lid, and all birds blink by means of a skin extending over the eye from the inner corner; the 25owl and its congeners also close the eye by means of the upper lid. The same phenomenon is observable in the animals that are protected by horny scutes, as in the lizard and its congeners; for they all without exception close the eye with the lower lid, but they do not blink like birds. Further, birds have neither scutes nor hair, but feathers; and the feathers are invariably furnished with 30quills. They have no tail, but a rump with tail-feathers, short in such as are long-legged and web-footed, large in others. These latter kinds of birds fly with their feet tucked up close to the belly; but the small rumped or short-tailed birds fly with their legs stretched out at full length. All are furnished with a tongue, but the organ is variable, being long in some birds and broad in others.
This latter bird is somewhat bigger than the chaffinch, and is mottled in appearance. It is peculiar in the arrangement of its toes, and resembles the snake in the structure of its tongue; for the creature can protrude its tongue to the 15extent of four finger-breadths, and then draw it back again. Moreover, it can twist its head backwards while keeping all the rest of its body still, like the serpent. It has big claws, somewhat resembling those of the woodpecker. Its note is a shrill chirp.
Birds are furnished with a mouth, but with an exceptional one, for they have neither lips nor teeth, but a beak. Neither have they ears 20nor a nose, but only passages for the sensations connected with these organs: that for the nostrils in the beak, and that for hearing in the head. Like all other animals they all have two eyes, and these are devoid of lashes. The heavy-bodied (or gallinaceous) birds close the eye by means of the lower lid, and all birds blink by means of a skin extending over the eye from the inner corner; the 25owl and its congeners also close the eye by means of the upper lid. The same phenomenon is observable in the animals that are protected by horny scutes, as in the lizard and its congeners; for they all without exception close the eye with the lower lid, but they do not blink like birds. Further, birds have neither scutes nor hair, but feathers; and the feathers are invariably furnished with 30quills. They have no tail, but a rump with tail-feathers, short in such as are long-legged and web-footed, large in others. These latter kinds of birds fly with their feet tucked up close to the belly; but the small rumped or short-tailed birds fly with their legs stretched out at full length. All are furnished with a tongue, but the organ is variable, being long in some birds and broad in others.
504b
1 μὲν γὰρ μακρὰν οἱ δὲ βραχεῖαν. Μάλιστα δὲ τῶν ζῴων μετὰ
τὸν ἄνθρωπον γράμματα φθέγγεται ἔνια τῶν ὀρνίθων
γένη· τοιαῦτα δ' ἐστὶ τὰ πλατύγλωττα αὐτῶν μάλιστα. Τὴν
δ' ἐπιγλωττίδα ἐπὶ τῆς ἀρτηρίας οὐδὲν τῶν ᾠοτοκούντων ἔχει,
5 ἀλλὰ συνάγει καὶ διοίγει τὸν πόρον ὥστε μηδὲν κατιέναι
τῶν ἐχόντων βάρος ἐπὶ τὸν πλεύμονα. Γένη δ' ἔνια τῶν ὀρνίθων
ἔχει καὶ πλῆκτρα· γαμψώνυχον δ' ἅμα καὶ πλῆκτρον
ἔχον οὐδέν. Ἔστι δὲ τὰ μὲν γαμψώνυχα τῶν πτητικῶν,
τὰ δὲ πληκτροφόρα τῶν βαρέων. Ἔτι δ' ἔνια τῶν ὀρνέων λόφον
10 ἔχουσι, τὰ μὲν αὐτῶν τῶν πτερῶν ἐπανεστηκότα, ὁ δ'
ἀλεκτρυὼν μόνος ἴδιον· οὔτε γὰρ σάρξ ἐστιν οὔτε πόρρω σαρκὸς
τὴν φύσιν.
1Certain species of birds above all other animals, and next after man, possess the faculty of uttering articulate sounds; and this faculty is chiefly developed in broad-tongued birds. No oviparous creature has an epiglottis over the windpipe, but these animals so manage the opening and shutting of the 5windpipe as not to allow any solid substance to get down into the lung.
Some species of birds are furnished additionally with spurs, but no bird with crooked talons is found so provided. The birds with talons are among those that fly well, but those that have spurs are among the heavy-bodied.
Again, some birds have a crest. As a general rule the crest sticks up, and is composed of 10feathers only; but the crest of the barn-door cock is exceptional in kind, for, whereas it is not just exactly flesh, at the same time it is not easy to say what else it is.
Some species of birds are furnished additionally with spurs, but no bird with crooked talons is found so provided. The birds with talons are among those that fly well, but those that have spurs are among the heavy-bodied.
Again, some birds have a crest. As a general rule the crest sticks up, and is composed of 10feathers only; but the crest of the barn-door cock is exceptional in kind, for, whereas it is not just exactly flesh, at the same time it is not easy to say what else it is.
Book 2,Chapter 13 (504b13–505b4)
Τῶν δ' ἐνύδρων ζῴων τὸ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος ἓν ἀπὸ τῶν
ἄλλων ἀφώρισται, πολλὰς περιέχον ἰδέας. Κεφαλὴν μὲν
15 γὰρ ἔχει καὶ τὰ πρανῆ καὶ τὰ ὕπτια, ἐν ᾧ τόπῳ ἡ γαστὴρ
καὶ τὰ σπλάγχνα· καὶ ὀπίσθιον οὐραῖον συνεχὲς ἔχει καὶ
ἄσχιστον· τοῦτο δ' οὐ πᾶσιν ὅμοιον. Αὐχένα δ' οὐδεὶς ἔχει
ἰχθύς, οὐδὲ κῶλον οὐδέν, οὐδ' ὄρχεις ὅλως, οὔτ' ἐντὸς οὔτ' ἐκτός,
οὐδὲ μαστούς. Τοῦτο μὲν οὖν ὅλως οὐδ' ἄλλο οὐδὲν τῶν μὴ ζῳοτοκούντων,
20 οὐδὲ τὰ ζῳοτοκοῦντα πάντα, ἀλλ' ὅσα εὐθὺς ἐν
αὑτοῖς ζῳοτοκεῖ καὶ μὴ ᾠοτοκεῖ πρῶτον. Καὶ γὰρ ὁ δελφὶς
ζῳοτοκεῖ, διὸ ἔχει μαστοὺς δύο, οὐκ ἄνω δ' ἀλλὰ πλησίον
τῶν ἄρθρων. Ἔχει δ' οὐχ ὥσπερ τὰ τετράποδα ἐπιφανεῖς θηλάς,
ἀλλ' οἷον ῥύακας δύο, ἑκατέρωθεν ἐκ τῶν πλαγίων
25 ἕνα, ἐξ ὧν τὸ γάλα ῥεῖ· καὶ θηλάζεται ὑπὸ τῶν τέκνων
παρακολουθούντων· καὶ τοῦτο ὦπται ἤδη ὑπό τινων φανερῶς.
Οἱ δ' ἰχθύες, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, οὔτε μαστοὺς ἔχουσιν οὔτ' αἰδοίων
πόρον ἐκτὸς οὐδένα φανερόν. Ἴδιον δ' ἔχουσι τό τε τῶν βραγχίων,
ᾗ τὸ ὕδωρ ἀφιᾶσι δεξάμενοι κατὰ τὸ στόμα, καὶ τὰ
30 πτερύγια, οἱ μὲν πλεῖστοι τέτταρα, οἱ δὲ προμήκεις δύο,
οἷον ἔγχελυς, δύο ὄντα πρὸς τὰ βράγχια. Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ κεστρεῖς,
οἷον ἐν Σιφαῖς οἱ ἐν τῇ λίμνῃ, δύο, καὶ ἡ καλουμένη
ταινία ὡσαύτως. Ἔνια δὲ τῶν προμήκων οὐδὲ πτερύγια ἔχει,
οἷον σμύραινα, οὐδὲ τὰ βράγχια διηρθρωμένα ὁμοίως τοῖς
35 ἄλλοις ἰχθύσιν. Αὐτῶν δὲ τῶν ἐχόντων βράγχια τὰ μὲν
Of water animals the genus of fishes constitutes a single group apart from the rest, and including many diverse forms.
In the first place, the fish has a head, a back, a belly, in the neighbourhood of which 15last are placed the stomach and viscera; and behind it has a tail of continuous, undivided shape, but not, by the way, in all cases alike. No fish has a neck, or any limb, or testicles at all, within or without, or breasts. But, by the way this absence of breasts may predicated of all non-viviparous animals; and in point of fact viviparous animals are not in all cases provided 20with the organ, excepting such as are directly viviparous without being first oviparous. Thus the dolphin is directly viviparous, and accordingly we find it furnished with two breasts, not situated high up, but in the neighbourhood of the genitals. And this creature is not provided, like quadrupeds, with visible teats, but has two vents, one on each flank, from which the milk 25flows; and its young have to follow after it to get suckled, and this phenomenon has been actually witnessed.
Fishes, then, as has been observed, have no breasts and no passage for the genitals visible externally. But they have an exceptional organ in the gills, whereby, after taking the water in the mouth, they discharge it again; and in the fins, of which the greater part have 30four, and the lanky ones two, as, for instance, the eel, and these two situated near to the gills. In like manner the grey mullet-as, for instance, the mullet found in the lake at Siphae-have only two fins; and the same is the case with the fish called Ribbon-fish. Some of the lanky fishes have no fins at all, such as the muraena, nor gills articulated like those of other fish.
In the first place, the fish has a head, a back, a belly, in the neighbourhood of which 15last are placed the stomach and viscera; and behind it has a tail of continuous, undivided shape, but not, by the way, in all cases alike. No fish has a neck, or any limb, or testicles at all, within or without, or breasts. But, by the way this absence of breasts may predicated of all non-viviparous animals; and in point of fact viviparous animals are not in all cases provided 20with the organ, excepting such as are directly viviparous without being first oviparous. Thus the dolphin is directly viviparous, and accordingly we find it furnished with two breasts, not situated high up, but in the neighbourhood of the genitals. And this creature is not provided, like quadrupeds, with visible teats, but has two vents, one on each flank, from which the milk 25flows; and its young have to follow after it to get suckled, and this phenomenon has been actually witnessed.
Fishes, then, as has been observed, have no breasts and no passage for the genitals visible externally. But they have an exceptional organ in the gills, whereby, after taking the water in the mouth, they discharge it again; and in the fins, of which the greater part have 30four, and the lanky ones two, as, for instance, the eel, and these two situated near to the gills. In like manner the grey mullet-as, for instance, the mullet found in the lake at Siphae-have only two fins; and the same is the case with the fish called Ribbon-fish. Some of the lanky fishes have no fins at all, such as the muraena, nor gills articulated like those of other fish.
505a
1 ἔχει ἐπικάλυμμα τοῖς βραγχίοις, τὰ δὲ σελάχη πάντα
ἀκάλυπτα. Καὶ τὰ μὲν ἔχοντα καλύμματα πάντα ἐκ
πλαγίου ἔχει τὰ βράγχια, τῶν δὲ σελαχῶν τὰ μὲν πλατέα
κάτω ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις, οἷον νάρκη καὶ βάτος, τὰ δὲ
5 προμήκη ἐν τοῖς πλαγίοις, οἷον πάντα τὰ γαλεώδη. Ὁ δὲ
βάτραχος ἐκ πλαγίου μὲν ἔχει, καλυπτόμενα δ' οὐκ ἀκανθώδει
καλύμματι ὥσπερ οἱ μὴ σελαχώδεις, ἀλλὰ δερματώδει.
Ἔτι δὲ τῶν ἐχόντων βράγχια τῶν μὲν ἁπλᾶ ἐστι τὰ
βράγχια, τῶν δὲ διπλᾶ· τὸ δ' ἔσχατον πρὸς τὸ σῶμα
10 πάντων ἁπλοῦν. Καὶ πάλιν τὰ μὲν ὀλίγα βράγχια ἔχει,
τὰ δὲ πλῆθος βραγχίων· ἴσα δ' ἐφ' ἑκάτερα πάντες. Ἔχει
δ' ὁ ἐλάχιστα ἔχων ἓν ἐφ' ἑκάτερα βράγχιον, διπλοῦν δὲ
τοῦτο, οἷον κάπρος· οἱ δὲ δύο ἐφ' ἑκάτερα, τὸ μὲν ἁπλοῦν
τὸ δὲ διπλοῦν, οἷον γόγγρος καὶ σκάρος· οἱ δὲ τέτταρα
15 ἐφ' ἑκάτερα ἁπλᾶ, οἷον ἔλλοψ, συναγρίς, σμύραινα, ἔγχελυς·
οἱ δὲ τέτταρα μὲν δίστοιχα δὲ πλὴν τοῦ ἐσχάτου, οἷον
κίχλη καὶ πέρκη καὶ γλάνις καὶ κυπρῖνος. Ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ οἱ
γαλεώδεις διπλᾶ πάντες, καὶ πέντ' ἐφ' ἑκάτερα· ὁ δὲ ξιφίας
ὀκτὼ διπλᾶ. Περὶ μὲν οὖν πλήθους βραγχίων ἐν τοῖς
20 ἰχθύσι τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον. Ἔτι δὲ πρὸς τἆλλα ζῷα οἱ
ἰχθύες διαφέρουσι πρὸς τῇ διαφορᾷ τῇ περὶ τὰ βράγχια·
οὔτε γὰρ ὥσπερ τῶν πεζῶν ὅσα ζῳοτόκα ἔχει τρίχας, οὔθ'
ὥσπερ ἔνια τῶν ᾠοτοκούντων τετραπόδων φολίδας, οὔθ' ὡς τὸ
τῶν ὀρνέων γένος πτερωτόν, ἀλλ' οἱ μὲν πλεῖστοι αὐτῶν λεπιδωτοί
25 εἰσιν, ὀλίγοι δέ τινες τραχεῖς, ἐλάχιστον δ' ἐστὶ πλῆθος
αὐτῶν τὸ λεῖον. Τῶν μὲν οὖν σελαχῶν τὰ μὲν τραχέα
ἐστὶ τὰ δὲ λεῖα, γόγγρος δὲ καὶ ἔγχελυς καὶ θύννος τῶν
λείων. Καρχαρόδοντες δὲ πάντες οἱ ἰχθύες ἔξω τοῦ σκάρου·
καὶ πάντες ἔχουσιν ὀξεῖς τοὺς ὀδόντας καὶ πολυστοίχους, καὶ
30 ἔνιοι ἐν τῇ γλώττῃ. Καὶ γλῶτταν σκληρὰν καὶ ἀκανθώδη
ἔχουσι, καὶ προσπεφυκυῖαν οὕτως ὥστ' ἐνίοτε μὴ δοκεῖν ἔχειν.
Τὸ δὲ στόμα οἱ μὲν ἀνερρωγός, ὥσπερ ἔνια τῶν ζῳοτοκούντων
καὶ τετραπόδων. Τῶν δ' αἰσθητηρίων τῶν μὲν ἄλλων οὐδὲν
ἔχουσι φανερὸν οὔτ' αὐτὸ οὔτε τοὺς πόρους, οὔτ' ἀκοῆς οὔτ' ὀςφρήσεως·
35 ὀφθαλμοὺς δὲ πάντες ἔχουσιν ἄνευ βλεφάρων, οὐ
1And of those fish that are provided with gills, some have coverings for this organ, whereas all the selachians have the organ unprotected by a cover. And those fishes that have coverings or opercula for the gills have in all cases their gills placed sideways; whereas, among selachians, the broad ones have the gills down below 5on the belly, as the torpedo and the ray, while the lanky ones have the organ placed sideways, as is the case in all the dog-fish.
The fishing-frog has gills placed sideways, and covered not with a spiny operculum, as in all but the selachian fishes, but with one of skin.
Morever, with fishes furnished with gills, the gills in some cases are simple in others duplicate; and the last gill in the direction 10of the body is always simple. And, again, some fishes have few gills, and others have a great number; but all alike have the same number on both sides. Those that have the least number have one gill on either side, and this one duplicate, like the boar-fish; others have two on either side, one simple and the other duplicate, like the conger and the scarus; others have four on either side, simple, as the 15elops, the synagris, the muraena, and the eel; others have four, all, with the exception of the hindmost one, in double rows, as the wrasse, the perch, the sheat-fish, and the carp. The dog-fish have all their gills double, five on a side; and the sword-fish has eight double gills. So much for the number of gills as found in fishes.
Again, fishes differ from other animals in more ways than as regards the 20gills. For they are not covered with hairs as are viviparous land animals, nor, as is the case with certain oviparous quadrupeds, with tessellated scutes, nor, like birds, with feathers; but for the most part they are covered with scales. Some few are rough-skinned, while the smooth-skinned are very few indeed. Of the Selachia some are rough-skinned and some smooth-skinned; and among the smooth-skinned fishes 25are included the conger, the eel, and the tunny.
All fishes are saw-toothed excepting the scarus; and the teeth in all cases are sharp and set in many rows, and in some cases are placed on the tongue. The tongue is hard and spiny, and so firmly attached that fishes in many instances seem to be devoid of the organ altogether. The mouth in some cases is wide-stretched, as it is with some viviparous 30quadrupeds....
With regard to organs of sense, all save eyes, fishes possess none of them, neither the organs nor their passages, neither ears nor nostrils; but all fishes are furnished with eyes, and the eyes devoid of lids, though the eyes are not hard; with regard to the organs connected with the other senses, hearing and smell, they are devoid alike of the organs themselves and of passages indicative of them.
The fishing-frog has gills placed sideways, and covered not with a spiny operculum, as in all but the selachian fishes, but with one of skin.
Morever, with fishes furnished with gills, the gills in some cases are simple in others duplicate; and the last gill in the direction 10of the body is always simple. And, again, some fishes have few gills, and others have a great number; but all alike have the same number on both sides. Those that have the least number have one gill on either side, and this one duplicate, like the boar-fish; others have two on either side, one simple and the other duplicate, like the conger and the scarus; others have four on either side, simple, as the 15elops, the synagris, the muraena, and the eel; others have four, all, with the exception of the hindmost one, in double rows, as the wrasse, the perch, the sheat-fish, and the carp. The dog-fish have all their gills double, five on a side; and the sword-fish has eight double gills. So much for the number of gills as found in fishes.
Again, fishes differ from other animals in more ways than as regards the 20gills. For they are not covered with hairs as are viviparous land animals, nor, as is the case with certain oviparous quadrupeds, with tessellated scutes, nor, like birds, with feathers; but for the most part they are covered with scales. Some few are rough-skinned, while the smooth-skinned are very few indeed. Of the Selachia some are rough-skinned and some smooth-skinned; and among the smooth-skinned fishes 25are included the conger, the eel, and the tunny.
All fishes are saw-toothed excepting the scarus; and the teeth in all cases are sharp and set in many rows, and in some cases are placed on the tongue. The tongue is hard and spiny, and so firmly attached that fishes in many instances seem to be devoid of the organ altogether. The mouth in some cases is wide-stretched, as it is with some viviparous 30quadrupeds....
With regard to organs of sense, all save eyes, fishes possess none of them, neither the organs nor their passages, neither ears nor nostrils; but all fishes are furnished with eyes, and the eyes devoid of lids, though the eyes are not hard; with regard to the organs connected with the other senses, hearing and smell, they are devoid alike of the organs themselves and of passages indicative of them.
505b
1 σκληρόφθαλμοι ὄντες. Ἔναιμον μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἅπαν τὸ τῶν
ἰχθύων γένος, εἰσὶ δ' αὐτῶν οἱ μὲν ᾠοτόκοι οἱ δὲ ζῳοτόκοι,
οἱ μὲν λεπιδωτοὶ πάντες ᾠοτόκοι, τὰ δὲ σελάχη πάντα
ζῳοτόκα πλὴν βατράχου.
1Fishes without exception are supplied with blood. Some of them are oviparous, and some viviparous; scaly fish are invariably oviparous, but cartilaginous fishes are all viviparous, with the single exception of the fishing-frog.
Book 2,Chapter 14 (505b5–24)
5 Λοιπὸν δὲ τῶν ἐναίμων ζῴων τὸ τῶν ὄφεων γένος. Ἔστι
δὲ κοινὸν ἀμφοῖν· τὸ μὲν γὰρ πλεῖστον αὐτῶν χερσαῖόν ἐστιν,
ὀλίγον δὲ τὸ τῶν ἐνύδρων ἐν τοῖς ποτίμοις ὕδασι διατελεῖ.
Εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ θαλάττιοι ὄφεις, παραπλήσιοι τὴν μορφὴν τοῖς
χερσαίοις τἆλλα· πλὴν τὴν κεφαλὴν ἔχουσι γογγροειδεστέραν.
10 Γένη δὲ πολλὰ τῶν θαλαττίων ὄφεών ἐστι, καὶ χρόαν
ἔχουσι παντοδαπήν· οὐ γίνονται δ' οὗτοι ἐν τοῖς σφόδρα βαθέσιν.
Ἄποδες δ' εἰσὶν οἱ ὄφεις ὥσπερ τὸ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος.
Εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ σκολόπενδραι θαλάττιαι, παραπλήσιαι τὸ εἶδος
ταῖς χερσαίαις, τὸ δὲ μέγεθος μικρῷ ἐλάττους· γίνονται
15 δὲ περὶ τοὺς πετρώδεις τόπους. Τὴν δὲ χροιάν εἰσιν ἐρυθρότεραι
καὶ πολύποδες μᾶλλον καὶ λεπτοσκελέστεραι τῶν
χερσαίων. Οὐ γίνονται δ' οὐδ' αὗται, ὥσπερ οὐδ' οἱ ὄφεις,
ἐν τοῖς βαθέσι σφόδρα. Ἔστι δ' ἰχθύδιόν τι τῶν πετραίων, ὃ
καλοῦσί τινες ἐχενηΐδα, καὶ χρῶνταί τινες αὐτῷ πρὸς δίκας
20 καὶ φίλτρα· ἔστι δ' ἄβρωτον· τοῦτο δ' ἔνιοί φασιν ἔχειν πόδας
οὐκ ἔχον, ἀλλὰ φαίνεται διὰ τὸ τὰς πτέρυγας ὁμοίας
ἔχειν ποσίν.
Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἔξω μόρια, καὶ πόσα καὶ ποῖα τῶν ἐναίμων
ζῴων, καὶ τίνας ἔχει πρὸς ἄλληλα διαφοράς, εἴρηται.
Of blooded animals there now remains the serpent genus. This genus is common 5to both elements, for, while most species comprehended therein are land animals, a small minority, to wit the aquatic species, pass their lives in fresh water. There are also sea-serpents, in shape to a great extent resembling their congeners of the land, with this exception that the head in their case is somewhat like the head of the conger; and there are several kinds of 10sea-serpent, and the different kinds differ in colour; these animals are not found in very deep water. Serpents, like fish, are devoid of feet.
There are also sea-scolopendras, resembling in shape their land congeners, but somewhat less in regard to magnitude. These creatures are found in the neighbourhood of rocks; as compared with their land congeners they are redder in colour, 15are furnished with feet in greater numbers and with legs of more delicate structure. And the same remark applies to them as to the sea-serpents, that they are not found in very deep water.
Of fishes whose habitat is in the vicinity of rocks there is a tiny one, which some call the Echeneis, or 'ship-holder', and which is by some people used as a charm to bring luck in affairs 20of law and love. The creature is unfit for eating. Some people assert that it has feet, but this is not the case: it appears, however, to be furnished with feet from the fact that its fins resemble those organs.
So much, then, for the external parts of blooded animals, as regards their numbers, their properties, and their relative diversities.
There are also sea-scolopendras, resembling in shape their land congeners, but somewhat less in regard to magnitude. These creatures are found in the neighbourhood of rocks; as compared with their land congeners they are redder in colour, 15are furnished with feet in greater numbers and with legs of more delicate structure. And the same remark applies to them as to the sea-serpents, that they are not found in very deep water.
Of fishes whose habitat is in the vicinity of rocks there is a tiny one, which some call the Echeneis, or 'ship-holder', and which is by some people used as a charm to bring luck in affairs 20of law and love. The creature is unfit for eating. Some people assert that it has feet, but this is not the case: it appears, however, to be furnished with feet from the fact that its fins resemble those organs.
So much, then, for the external parts of blooded animals, as regards their numbers, their properties, and their relative diversities.
Book 2,Chapter 15 (505b25–506b23)
25 Τὰ δ' ἐντὸς πῶς ἔχει, λεκτέον ἐν τοῖς ἐναίμοις ζῴοις
πρῶτον· τούτῳ γὰρ διαφέρει τὰ μέγιστα γένη πρὸς τὰ λοιπὰ
τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων, τῷ τὰ μὲν ἔναιμα τὰ δ' ἄναιμα εἶναι.
Ἔστι δὲ ταῦτα ἄνθρωπός τε καὶ τὰ ζῳοτόκα τῶν τετραπόδων,
ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὰ ᾠοτόκα τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ ὄρνις καὶ ἰχθὺς
30 καὶ κῆτος, καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο ἀνώνυμόν ἐστι διὰ τὸ μὴ εἴναι
γένος ἀλλ' ἁπλοῦν τὸ εἶδος ἐπὶ τῶν καθ' ἕκαστον, οἷον ὄφις
καὶ κροκόδειλος. Ὅσα μὲν οὖν ἐστι τετράποδα καὶ ζῳοτόκα,
στόμαχον μὲν καὶ ἀρτηρίαν πάντ' ἔχει, καὶ κείμενα τὸν
αὐτὸν τρόπον ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ὅσα
35 ᾠοτοκεῖ τῶν τετραπόδων, καὶ ἐν τοῖς ὄρνισιν· ἀλλὰ τοῖς εἴδεσι
As for the properties of the internal 25organs, these we must first discuss in the case of the animals that are supplied with blood. For the principal genera differ from the rest of animals, in that the former are supplied with blood and the latter are not; and the former include man, viviparous and oviparous quadrupeds, birds, fishes, cetaceans, and all the others that come under no general designation by reason 30of their not forming genera, but groups of which simply the specific name is predicable, as when we say 'the serpent,' the 'crocodile'.
All viviparous quadrupeds, then, are furnished with an oesophagus and a windpipe, situated as in man; the same statement is applicable to oviparous quadrupeds and to birds, only that the latter present diversities in the shapes of these organs.
All viviparous quadrupeds, then, are furnished with an oesophagus and a windpipe, situated as in man; the same statement is applicable to oviparous quadrupeds and to birds, only that the latter present diversities in the shapes of these organs.
506a
1 τῶν μορίων τούτων διαφέρουσιν. Ὅλως δὲ πάντα ὅσα
τὸν ἀέρα δεχόμενα ἀναπνεῖ καὶ ἐκπνεῖ, πάντ' ἔχει πλεύμονα
καὶ ἀρτηρίαν καὶ στόμαχον, καὶ τὴν θέσιν τοῦ στομάχου καὶ
τῆς ἀρτηρίας ὁμοίως, ἀλλ' οὐχ ὅμοια, τὸν δὲ πλεύμονα οὔθ'
5 ὅμοιον οὔτε τῇ θέσει ὁμοίως ἔχοντα. Ἔτι δὲ καρδίαν ἅπαντ'
ἔχει ὅσα αἷμα ἔχει, καὶ τὸ διάζωμα, ὃ καλοῦνται φρένες·
ἀλλ' ἐν τοῖς μικροῖς διὰ λεπτότητα καὶ σμικρότητα οὐ φαίνεται
ὁμοίως, πλὴν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ. Ἴδιον δ' ἐστὶν ἐπὶ τῶν βοῶν·
ἔστι γάρ τι γένος βοῶν, ἀλλ' οὐ πάντες, ὃ ἔχει ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ
10 ὀστοῦν. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ἡ τῶν ἵππων καρδία ὀστοῦν. Πλεύμονα
δ' οὐ πάντα, οἷον ἰχθὺς οὐκ ἔχει, οὐδ' εἴ τι ἄλλο τῶν ζῴων
ἔχει βράγχια. Καὶ ἧπαρ ἅπαντ' ἔχει ὅσαπερ αἷμα. Σπλῆνα
δὲ τὰ πλεῖστα ἔχει ὅσαπερ καὶ αἷμα. Τὰ δὲ πολλὰ
τῶν μὴ ζῳοτόκων ἀλλ' ᾠοτόκων μικρὸν ἔχει τὸν σπλῆνα
15 οὕτως ὥστε λανθάνειν ὀλίγου τὴν αἴσθησιν, ἔν τε τοῖς ὄρνισι
τοῖς πλείστοις, οἷον ἐν περιστερᾷ καὶ ἰκτίνῳ καὶ ἱέρακι καὶ
γλαυκί· ὁ δ' αἰγοκέφαλος ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει. Καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ᾠοτόκων
δὲ καὶ τετραπόδων τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον ἔχει· μικρὸν γὰρ
πάμπαν ἔχουσι καὶ ταῦτα, οἷον χελώνη, ἑμύς, φρύνη,
20 σαῦρος, κροκόδειλος, βάτραχος. Χολὴν δὲ τῶν ζῴων τὰ
μὲν ἔχει τὰ δ' οὐκ ἔχει ἐπὶ τῷ ἥπατι. Τῶν μὲν ζῳοτόκων
καὶ τετραπόδων ἔλαφος οὐκ ἔχει οὐδὲ πρόξ, ἔτι δ' ἵππος,
ὀρεύς, ὄνος, φώκη καὶ τῶν ὑῶν ἔνιοι. Τῶν δ' ἐλάφων αἱ
ἀχαΐναι καλούμεναι δοκοῦσιν ἔχειν ἐν τῇ κέρκῳ χολήν· ἔστι
25 δ' ὃ λέγουσι τὸ μὲν χρῶμα ὅμοιον χολῇ, οὐ μέντοι ὅλον
ὑγρὸν οὕτως, ἀλλ' ὅμοιον τῷ τοῦ σπληνὸς τὰ ἐντός. Σκώληκας
μέντοι πάντες ἔχουσιν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ ζῶντας· ἐγγίνονται
δ' ὑποκάτω τοῦ ὑπογλωττίου ἐν τῷ κοίλῳ καὶ περὶ τὸν σφόνδυλον,
ᾗ ἡ κεφαλὴ προσπέφυκε, τὸ μέγεθος οὐκ ἐλάττους
30 ὄντες τῶν μεγίστων εὐλῶν· ἐγγίνονται δ' ἀθρόοι καὶ συνεχεῖς,
τὸν ἀριθμὸν δ' εἰσὶ μάλιστα περὶ εἴκοσι. Χολὴν μὲν οὖν οὐκ
ἔχουσιν οἱ ἔλαφοι, ὥσπερ εἴρηται· τὸ δ' ἔντερον αὐτῶν ἐστι
πικρὸν οὕτως ὥστε μηδὲ τοὺς κύνας ἐθέλειν ἐσθίειν, ἂν μὴ
1As a general rule, all animals that take up air and breathe it in and out are furnished with a lung, a windpipe, and an oesophagus, with the windpipe and oesophagus not admitting of diversity in situation but admitting of diversity in properties, and with the lung admitting of diversity in both these respects. 5Further, all blooded animals have a heart and a diaphragm or midriff; but in small animals the existence of the latter organ is not so obvious owing to its delicacy and minute size.
In regard to the heart there is an exceptional phenomenon observable in oxen. In other words, there is one species of ox where, though not in all cases, a bone is found inside the heart. And, by the way, the 10horse's heart also has a bone inside it.
The genera referred to above are not in all cases furnished with a lung: for instance, the fish is devoid of the organ, as is also every animal furnished with gills. All blooded animals are furnished with a liver. As a general rule blooded animals are furnished with a spleen; but with the great majority of non-viviparous but oviparous animals the spleen 15is so small as all but to escape observation; and this is the case with almost all birds, as with the pigeon, the kite, the falcon, the owl: in point of fact, the aegocephalus is devoid of the organ altogether. With oviparous quadrupeds the case is much the same as with the viviparous; that is to say, they also have the spleen exceedingly minute, as the tortoise, the freshwater tortoise, 20the toad, the lizard, the crocodile, and the frog.
Some animals have a gall-bladder close to the liver, and others have not. Of viviparous quadrupeds the deer is without the organ, as also the roe, the horse, the mule, the ass, the seal, and some kinds of pigs. Of deer those that are called Achainae appear to have gall in their tail, but what is so called does resemble gall in colour, 25though it is not so completely fluid, and the organ internally resembles a spleen.
However, without any exception, stags are found to have maggots living inside the head, and the habitat of these creatures is in the hollow underneath the root of the tongue and in the neighbourhood of the vertebra to which the head is attached. These creatures are as large as the largest grubs; they grow all 30together in a cluster, and they are usually about twenty in number.
Deer then, as has been observed, are without a gall-bladder; their gut, however, is so bitter that even hounds refuse to eat it unless the animal is exceptionally fat.
In regard to the heart there is an exceptional phenomenon observable in oxen. In other words, there is one species of ox where, though not in all cases, a bone is found inside the heart. And, by the way, the 10horse's heart also has a bone inside it.
The genera referred to above are not in all cases furnished with a lung: for instance, the fish is devoid of the organ, as is also every animal furnished with gills. All blooded animals are furnished with a liver. As a general rule blooded animals are furnished with a spleen; but with the great majority of non-viviparous but oviparous animals the spleen 15is so small as all but to escape observation; and this is the case with almost all birds, as with the pigeon, the kite, the falcon, the owl: in point of fact, the aegocephalus is devoid of the organ altogether. With oviparous quadrupeds the case is much the same as with the viviparous; that is to say, they also have the spleen exceedingly minute, as the tortoise, the freshwater tortoise, 20the toad, the lizard, the crocodile, and the frog.
Some animals have a gall-bladder close to the liver, and others have not. Of viviparous quadrupeds the deer is without the organ, as also the roe, the horse, the mule, the ass, the seal, and some kinds of pigs. Of deer those that are called Achainae appear to have gall in their tail, but what is so called does resemble gall in colour, 25though it is not so completely fluid, and the organ internally resembles a spleen.
However, without any exception, stags are found to have maggots living inside the head, and the habitat of these creatures is in the hollow underneath the root of the tongue and in the neighbourhood of the vertebra to which the head is attached. These creatures are as large as the largest grubs; they grow all 30together in a cluster, and they are usually about twenty in number.
Deer then, as has been observed, are without a gall-bladder; their gut, however, is so bitter that even hounds refuse to eat it unless the animal is exceptionally fat.
506b
1 σφόδρα πίων ᾖ ὁ ἔλαφος. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ ἐλέφας τὸ ἧπαρ
ἄχολον μέν, τεμνομένου μέντοι περὶ τὸν τόπον οὗ τοῖς
ἔχουσιν ἐπιφύεται ἡ χολή, ῥεῖ ὑγρότης χολώδης ἢ πλείων ἢ
ἐλάττων. Τῶν δὲ δεχομένων τὴν θάλατταν καὶ ἐχόντων πλεύμονα
5 δελφὶς οὐκ ἔχει χολήν. Οἱ δ' ὄρνιθες καὶ οἱ ἰχθύες
πάντες ἔχουσι, καὶ τὰ ᾠοτόκα καὶ τετράποδα, καὶ ὡς ἐπίπαν
εἰπεῖν ἢ πλείω ἢ ἐλάττω· ἀλλ' οἱ μὲν πρὸς τῷ ἥπατι
τῶν ἰχθύων, οἷον οἵ τε γαλεώδεις καὶ γλάνις καὶ ῥίνη καὶ
λειόβατος καὶ νάρκη καὶ τῶν μακρῶν ἔγχελυς καὶ βελόνη
10 καὶ ζύγαινα. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ καλλιώνυμος ἐπὶ τῷ ἥπατι,
ὅσπερ ἔχει μεγίστην τῶν ἰχθύων ὡς κατὰ μέγεθος. Οἱ δὲ πρὸς
τοῖς ἐντέροις ἔχουσιν, ἀποτεταμένην ἀπὸ τοῦ ἥπατος πόροις
ἐνίοις πάνυ λεπτοῖς. Ἡ μὲν οὖν ἀμία παρὰ τὸ ἔντερον παρατεταμένην
ἰσομήκη ἔχει, πολλάκις δὲ καὶ ἐπαναδίπλωμα·
15 οἱ δ' ἄλλοι πρὸς τοῖς ἐντέροις, οἱ μὲν πορρώτερον οἱ δ' ἐγγύτερον,
οἷον βάτραχος, ἔλοψ, συναγρία, σμύραινα, ξιφίας.
Πολλάκις δὲ καὶ τὸ αὐτὸ γένος ἐπ' ἀμφότερα φαίνεται
ἔχον, οἷον γόγγροι οἱ μὲν πρὸς τῷ ἥπατι, οἱ δὲ
κάτω ἀπηρτημένην. Ὁμοίως δ' ἔχει τοῦτο καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων·
20 ἔνιοι γὰρ πρὸς τῇ κοιλίᾳ ἔχουσιν, οἱ δὲ πρὸς τοῖς ἐντέροις
τὴν χολήν, οἷον περιστερά, κόραξ, ὄρτυξ, χελιδών,
στρουθός. Ἔνιοι δ' ἅμα πρὸς τῷ ἥπατι ἔχουσι καὶ πρὸς τῇ
κοιλίᾳ, οἷον αἰγοκέφαλος, οἱ δ' ἅμα πρὸς τῷ ἥπατι καὶ
τοῖς ἐντέροις, οἷον ἱέραξ καὶ ἰκτῖνος.
1With the elephant also the liver is unfurnished with a gall-bladder, but when the animal is cut in the region where the organ is found in animals furnished with it, there oozes out a fluid resembling gall, in greater or less quantities. Of animals that take in sea-water and are furnished with a lung, the dolphin is 5unprovided with a gall-bladder. Birds and fishes all have the organ, as also oviparous quadrupeds, all to a greater or a lesser extent. But of fishes some have the organ close to the liver, as the dogfishes, the sheat-fish, the rhine or angel-fish, the smooth skate, the torpedo, and, of the lanky fishes, the eel, the pipe-fish, and the hammer-headed shark. The callionymus, also, has the gall-bladder 10close to the liver, and in no other fish does the organ attain so great a relative size. Other fishes have the organ close to the gut, attached to the liver by certain extremely fine ducts. The bonito has the gall-bladder stretched alongside the gut and equalling it in length, and often a double fold of it. others have the organ in the region of the gut; in some cases far off, in others 15near; as the fishing-frog, the elops, the synagris, the muraena, and the sword-fish. Often animals of the same species show this diversity of position; as, for instance, some congers are found with the organ attached close to the liver, and others with it detached from and below it. The case is much the same with birds: that is, some have the gall-bladder close to the stomach, and others close 20to the gut, as the pigeon, the raven, the quail, the swallow, and the sparrow; some have it near at once to the liver and to the stomach as the aegocephalus; others have it near at once to the liver and the gut, as the falcon and the kite.
Book 2,Chapter 16 (506b24–31)
Νεφροὺς δὲ καὶ κύστιν
25 τὰ μὲν ζῳοτόκα τῶν τετραπόδων πάντ' ἔχει· ὅσα δ' ᾠοτοκεῖ,
τῶν μὲν ἄλλων οὐδὲν ἔχει, οἷον οὔτ' ὄρνις οὔτ' ἰχθύς,
τῶν δὲ τετραπόδων μόνη χελώνη ἡ θαλαττία μέγεθος κατὰ
λόγον τῶν ἄλλων μορίων. Ὁμοίους δ' ἔχει τοὺς νεφροὺς ἡ
θαλαττία χελώνη τοῖς βοείοις· ἔστι δ' ὁ τοῦ βοὸς οἷον ἐκ
30 πολλῶν μικρῶν εἷς συγκείμενος. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ βόνασος τὰ
ἐντὸς ἅπαντα ὅμοια βοΐ.
Again, all viviparous quadrupeds are furnished with kidneys and a bladder. Of the ovipara that are not quadrupedal there is no instance known of an animal, 25whether fish or bird, provided with these organs. Of the ovipara that are quadrupedal, the turtle alone is provided with these organs of a magnitude to correspond with the other organs of the animal. In the turtle the kidney resembles the same organ in the ox; that is to say, it looks one single organ composed of a number of small ones. (The bison also resembles the ox in all its internal parts).
Book 2,Chapter 17 (506b32–509a23)
Τῇ δὲ θέσει, ὅσα ἔχει ταῦτα τὰ μόρια, ὁμοίως κείμενα
ἔχει, τήν τε καρδίαν περὶ τὸ μέσον, πλὴν ἐν ἀνθρώπῳ·
30With all animals that are furnished with these parts, the parts are similarly situated, and with the exception of man, the heart is in the middle; in man, however, as has been observed, the heart is placed a little to the left-hand side.
507a
1 οὗτος δ' ἐν τῷ ἀριστερῷ μᾶλλον μέρει, καθάπερ
ἐλέχθη πρότερον. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ τὸ ὀξὺ ἡ καρδία πάντων εἰς τὸ
πρόσθεν· πλὴν ἐπὶ τῶν ἰχθύων οὐκ ἂν δόξειεν· οὐ γὰρ πρὸς
τὸ στῆθος ἔχει τὸ ὀξύ, ἀλλὰ πρὸς τὴν κεφαλὴν καὶ τὸ
5 στόμα. Ἀνήρτηται δ' αὐτῶν τὸ ἄκρον ᾗ συνάπτει τὰ βράγχια
ἀλλήλοις τὰ δεξιὰ καὶ τὰ ἀριστερά. Εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ ἄλλοι
πόροι τεταμένοι ἐξ αὐτῆς εἰς ἕκαστον τῶν βραγχίων,
μείζους μὲν τοῖς μείζοσιν, ἐλάττους δὲ τοῖς ἐλάττοσιν· ὁ δ'
ἐπ' ἄκρας τῆς καρδίας τοῖς μεγάλοις αὐτῶν σφόδρα παχὺς
10 αὐλός ἐστι καὶ λευκός. Στόμαχον δ' ὀλίγοι ἔχουσι τῶν
ἰχθύων, οἷον γόγγρος καὶ ἔγχελυς, καὶ οὗτοι μικρόν. Καὶ
τὸ ἧπαρ τοῖς ἔχουσι τοῖς μὲν ἀσχιδὲς ἔχουσίν ἐστιν ἐν τοῖς
δεξιοῖς ὅλον, τοῖς δ' ἐσχισμένον ἀπ' ἀρχῆς τὸ μεῖζον
ἐν τοῖς δεξιοῖς. Ἐνίοις γὰρ ἑκάτερον τὸ μόριον ἀπήρτηται
15 καὶ οὐ συμπέφυκεν ἡ ἀρχή, οἷον τῶν τ' ἰχθύων τοῖς γαλεώδεσι,
καὶ δασυπόδων τι γένος ἐστὶ καὶ ἄλλοθι καὶ περὶ
τὴν λίμνην τὴν Βόλβην ἐν τῇ καλουμένῃ Συκίνῃ, οὓς ἄν τις
δόξειε δύο ἥπατα ἔχειν διὰ τὸ πόρρω τοὺς πόρους συνάπτειν,
ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ τῶν ὀρνίθων πλεύμονος. Καὶ ὁ σπλὴν δ'
20 ἐστὶ πᾶσιν ἐν τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς κατὰ φύσιν, καὶ οἱ νεφροὶ
τοῖς ἔχουσι κείμενοι τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον· ἤδη δὲ διανοιχθέν τι
τῶν τετραπόδων ὤφθη ἔχον τὸν σπλῆνα μὲν ἐν τοῖς δεξιοῖς,
τὸ δ' ἧπαρ ἐν τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς· ἀλλὰ τὰ τοιαῦτα ὡς τέρατα
κρίνεται. Τείνει δ' ἡ μὲν ἀρτηρία πᾶσιν εἰς τὸν πλεύμονα
25 (ὃν δὲ τρόπον, ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν), ὁ δὲ στόμαχος εἰς
τὴν κοιλίαν διὰ τοῦ διαζώματος, ὅσα ἔχει στόμαχον· οἱ γὰρ
ἰχθύες, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, οἱ πλεῖστοι οὐκ ἔχουσιν, ἀλλ'
εὐθὺς πρὸς τὸ στόμα συνάπτει ἡ κοιλία, διὸ πολλάκις ἐνίοις
τῶν μεγάλων διώκουσι τοὺς ἐλάττους προπίπτει ἡ κοιλία εἰς
30 τὸ στόμα. Ἔχει δὲ κοιλίαν πάντα μὲν τὰ εἰρημένα, καὶ κειμένην
ὁμοίως (κεῖται γὰρ ὑπὸ τὸ διάζωμα εὐθύς), καὶ τὸ ἔντερον
ἐχόμενον καὶ τελευτῶν πρὸς τὴν ἔξοδον τῆς τροφῆς
καὶ τὸν καλούμενον ἀρχόν. Ἀνομοίας δ' ἔχουσι τὰς κοιλίας.
Πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ ζῳοτόκων ὅσα μὴ ἔστιν
35 ἀμφώδοντα τῶν κερατοφόρων, τέτταρας ἔχει τοὺς τοιούτους
πόρους· ἃ δὴ καὶ λέγεται μηρυκάζειν. Διήκει γὰρ ὁ μὲν
στόμαχος ἀπὸ τοῦ στόματος ἀρξάμενος ἐπὶ τὰ κάτω παρὰ
1In all animals the pointed end of the heart turns frontwards; only in fish it would at first sight seem otherwise, for the pointed end is turned not towards the breast, but towards the head and the mouth. And (in fish) the apex is attached to a tube just where the right and left gills meet together. 5There are other ducts extending from the heart to each of the gills, greater in the greater fish, lesser in the lesser; but in the large fishes the duct at the pointed end of the heart is a tube, white-coloured and exceedingly thick. Fishes in some few cases have an oesophagus, as the conger and the eel; and in these the organ is small.
In fishes that are furnished with 10an undivided liver, the organ lies entirely on the right side; where the liver is cloven from the root, the larger half of the organ is on the right side: for in some fishes the two parts are detached from one another, without any coalescence at the root, as is the case with the dogfish. And there is also a species of hare in what is named the Fig district, near Lake Bolbe, 15and elsewhere, which animal might be taken to have two livers owing to the length of the connecting ducts, similar to the structure in the lung of birds.
The spleen in all cases, when normally placed, is on the left-hand side, and the kidneys also lie in the same position in all creatures that possess them. There have been known instances of quadrupeds under dissection, 20where the spleen was on the right hand and the liver on the left; but all such cases are regarded as supernatural.
In all animals the wind-pipe extends to the lung, and the manner how, we shall discuss hereafter; and the oesophagus, in all that have the organ, extends through the midriff into the stomach. For, by the way, as has been observed, most fishes have no oesophagus, 25but the stomach is united directly with the mouth, so that in some cases when big fish are pursuing little ones, the stomach tumbles forward into the mouth.
All the afore-mentioned animals have a stomach, and one similarly situated, that is to say, situated directly under the midriff; and they have a gut connected therewith and closing at the outlet of the residuum and 30at what is termed the 'rectum'. However, animals present diversities in the structure of their stomachs. In the first place, of the viviparous quadrupeds, such of the horned animals as are not equally furnished with teeth in both jaws are furnished with four such chambers. These animals, by the way, are those that are said to chew the cud. In these animals the oesophagus 35extends from the mouth downwards along the lung, from the midriff to the big stomach (or paunch); and this stomach is rough inside and semi-partitioned.
In fishes that are furnished with 10an undivided liver, the organ lies entirely on the right side; where the liver is cloven from the root, the larger half of the organ is on the right side: for in some fishes the two parts are detached from one another, without any coalescence at the root, as is the case with the dogfish. And there is also a species of hare in what is named the Fig district, near Lake Bolbe, 15and elsewhere, which animal might be taken to have two livers owing to the length of the connecting ducts, similar to the structure in the lung of birds.
The spleen in all cases, when normally placed, is on the left-hand side, and the kidneys also lie in the same position in all creatures that possess them. There have been known instances of quadrupeds under dissection, 20where the spleen was on the right hand and the liver on the left; but all such cases are regarded as supernatural.
In all animals the wind-pipe extends to the lung, and the manner how, we shall discuss hereafter; and the oesophagus, in all that have the organ, extends through the midriff into the stomach. For, by the way, as has been observed, most fishes have no oesophagus, 25but the stomach is united directly with the mouth, so that in some cases when big fish are pursuing little ones, the stomach tumbles forward into the mouth.
All the afore-mentioned animals have a stomach, and one similarly situated, that is to say, situated directly under the midriff; and they have a gut connected therewith and closing at the outlet of the residuum and 30at what is termed the 'rectum'. However, animals present diversities in the structure of their stomachs. In the first place, of the viviparous quadrupeds, such of the horned animals as are not equally furnished with teeth in both jaws are furnished with four such chambers. These animals, by the way, are those that are said to chew the cud. In these animals the oesophagus 35extends from the mouth downwards along the lung, from the midriff to the big stomach (or paunch); and this stomach is rough inside and semi-partitioned.
507b
1 τὸν πλεύμονα, ἀπὸ τοῦ διαζώματος ἐπὶ τὴν κοιλίαν
τὴν μεγάλην· αὕτη δ' ἐστὶ τὰ ἔσω τραχεῖα καὶ διειλημμένη.
Συνήρτηται δ' αὐτῇ πλησίον τῆς τοῦ στομάχου προσβολῆς ὁ
καλούμενος κεκρύφαλος ἀπὸ τῆς ὄψεως· ἔστι γὰρ τὰ μὲν ἔξωθεν
5 ὅμοιος τῇ κοιλίᾳ, τὰ δ' ἐντὸς ὅμοιος τοῖς πλεκτοῖς κεκρυφάλοις·
μεγέθει δὲ πολὺ ἐλάττων ἐστὶν ὁ κεκρύφαλος
τῆς κοιλίας. Τούτου δ' ἔχεται ὁ ἐχῖνος, τὰ ἐντὸς ὢν τραχὺς
καὶ πλακώδης, τὸ δὲ μέγεθος παραπλήσιος τῷ κεκρυφάλῳ.
Μετὰ δὲ τοῦτον τὸ καλούμενον ἤνυστρόν ἐστι, τῷ μὲν μεγέθει
10 τοῦ ἐχίνου μεῖζον, τὸ δὲ σχῆμα προμηκέστερον· ἔχει δ' ἐντὸς
πλάκας πολλὰς καὶ μεγάλας καὶ λείας. Ἀπὸ δὲ τούτου
τὸ ἔντερον ἤδη. Τὰ μὲν οὖν κερατοφόρα καὶ μὴ ἀμφώδοντα
τοιαύτην ἔχει τὴν κοιλίαν, διαφέρει δὲ πρὸς ἄλληλα τοῖς
σχήμασι καὶ τοῖς μεγέθεσι τούτων τε καὶ τῷ τὸν στόμαχον
15 εἰς μέσην ἢ πλαγίαν τείνειν τὴν κοιλίαν. Τὰ δ' ἀμφώδοντα
μίαν ἔχει κοιλίαν, οἷον ἄνθρωπος, ὗς, κύων, ἄρκτος, λέων,
λύκος. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ θὼς πάντα τὰ ἐντὸς ὅμοια λύκῳ.
Πάντα μὲν οὖν ἔχει μίαν κοιλίαν, καὶ μετὰ ταῦτα τὸ ἔντερον·
ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν ἔχει μείζω τὴν κοιλίαν, ὥσπερ ὗς
20 καὶ ἄρκτος (καὶ ἥ γε τῆς ὑὸς ὀλίγας ἔχει λείας πλάκας),
τὰ δὲ πολὺ ἐλάττω καὶ οὐ πολλῷ μείζω τοῦ ἐντέρου, καθάπερ
λέων καὶ κύων καὶ ἄνθρωπος. Καὶ τῶν ἄλλων δὲ τὰ
εἴδη διέστηκε πρὸς τὰς τούτων κοιλίας· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὑῒ ὁμοίαν
ἔχει τὰ δὲ κυνί, καὶ τὰ μείζω καὶ τὰ ἐλάττω τῶν ζῴων
25 ὡσαύτως. Διαφορὰ δὲ καὶ ἐν τούτοις κατὰ τὰ μεγέθη καὶ
τὰ σχήματα καὶ πάχη καὶ λεπτότητας ὑπάρχει τὰς τῆς
κοιλίας, καὶ κατὰ τὴν τοῦ στομάχου τῇ θέσει σύντρησιν. Διαφέρει
δὲ καὶ ἡ τῶν ἐντέρων φύσις ἑκατέροις τῶν εἰρημένων
ζῴων, τοῖς τε μὴ ἀμφώδουσι καὶ τοῖς ἀμφώδουσι, τῷ μεγέθει
30 καὶ πάχει καὶ ταῖς ἐπαναδιπλώσεσιν. Πάντα δὲ μείζω
τὰ τῶν μὴ ἀμφωδόντων ἐστίν· καὶ γὰρ αὐτὰ πάντα
μείζω· μικρὰ μὲν γὰρ ὀλίγα, πάμπαν δὲ μικρὸν οὐδέν
ἐστι κερατοφόρον. Ἔχουσι δ' ἔνια καὶ ἀποφυάδας τῶν ἐντέρων,
εὐθυέντερον δ' οὐδέν ἐστι μὴ ἀμφώδουν. Ὁ δ' ἐλέφας
35 ἔντερον ἔχει συμφύσεις ἔχον, ὥστε φαίνεσθαι τέτταρας κοιλίας
ἔχειν. Ἐν τούτῳ καὶ ἡ τροφὴ ἐγγίνεται, χωρὶς δ' οὐκ
ἔχει ἀγγεῖον. Καὶ τὰ σπλάγχνα ἔχει παραπλήσια τοῖς ὑείοις,
1And connected with it near to the entry of the oesophagus is what from its appearance is termed the 'reticulum' (or honeycomb bag); for outside it is like the stomach, but inside it resembles a netted cap; and the reticulum is a great deal smaller than the stomach. Connected with this 5is the 'echinus' (or many-plies), rough inside and laminated, and of about the same size as the reticulum. Next after this comes what is called the 'enystrum' (or abomasum), larger an longer than the echinus, furnished inside with numerous folds or ridges, large and smooth. After all this comes the gut.
Such is the stomach of those quadrupeds that are horned 10and have an unsymmetrical dentition; and these animals differ one from another in the shape and size of the parts, and in the fact of the oesophagus reaching the stomach centralwise in some cases and sideways in others. Animals that are furnished equally with teeth in both jaws have one stomach; as man, the pig, the dog, the bear, the lion, the wolf. (The 15Thos, by the by, has all its internal organs similar to the wolf's.)
All these, then have a single stomach, and after that the gut; but the stomach in some is comparatively large, as in the pig and bear, and the stomach of the pig has a few smooth folds or ridges; others have a much smaller stomach, not much bigger than the gut, as the lion, the dog, and 20man. In the other animals the shape of the stomach varies in the direction of one or other of those already mentioned; that is, the stomach in some animals resembles that of the pig; in others that of the dog, alike with the larger animals and the smaller ones. In all these animals diversities occur in regard to the size, the shape, the thickness or the 25thinness of the stomach, and also in regard to the place where the oesophagus opens into it.
There is also a difference in structure in the gut of the two groups of animals above mentioned (those with unsymmetrical and those with symmetrical dentition) in size, in thickness, and in foldings.
The intestines in those animals whose jaws are unequally furnished with 30teeth are in all cases the larger, for the animals themselves are larger than those in the other category; for very few of them are small, and no single one of the horned animals is very small. And some possess appendages (or caeca) to the gut, but no animal that has not incisors in both jaws has a straight gut.
The elephant has a gut constricted into 35chambers, so constructed that the animal appears to have four stomachs; in it the food is found, but there is no distinct and separate receptacle.
Such is the stomach of those quadrupeds that are horned 10and have an unsymmetrical dentition; and these animals differ one from another in the shape and size of the parts, and in the fact of the oesophagus reaching the stomach centralwise in some cases and sideways in others. Animals that are furnished equally with teeth in both jaws have one stomach; as man, the pig, the dog, the bear, the lion, the wolf. (The 15Thos, by the by, has all its internal organs similar to the wolf's.)
All these, then have a single stomach, and after that the gut; but the stomach in some is comparatively large, as in the pig and bear, and the stomach of the pig has a few smooth folds or ridges; others have a much smaller stomach, not much bigger than the gut, as the lion, the dog, and 20man. In the other animals the shape of the stomach varies in the direction of one or other of those already mentioned; that is, the stomach in some animals resembles that of the pig; in others that of the dog, alike with the larger animals and the smaller ones. In all these animals diversities occur in regard to the size, the shape, the thickness or the 25thinness of the stomach, and also in regard to the place where the oesophagus opens into it.
There is also a difference in structure in the gut of the two groups of animals above mentioned (those with unsymmetrical and those with symmetrical dentition) in size, in thickness, and in foldings.
The intestines in those animals whose jaws are unequally furnished with 30teeth are in all cases the larger, for the animals themselves are larger than those in the other category; for very few of them are small, and no single one of the horned animals is very small. And some possess appendages (or caeca) to the gut, but no animal that has not incisors in both jaws has a straight gut.
The elephant has a gut constricted into 35chambers, so constructed that the animal appears to have four stomachs; in it the food is found, but there is no distinct and separate receptacle.
508a
1 πλὴν τὸ μὲν ἧπαρ τετραπλάσιον τοῦ βοείου καὶ
τἆλλα, τὸν δὲ σπλῆνα ἐλάττω ἢ κατὰ λόγον. Τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον
ἔχει τὰ περὶ τὴν κοιλίαν καὶ τὴν τῶν ἐντέρων φύσιν
καὶ τοῖς τετράποσι μὲν τῶν ζῴων ᾠοτόκοις δέ, οἷον χελώνῃ
5 χερσαίᾳ καὶ χελώνῃ θαλαττίᾳ καὶ σαύρᾳ καὶ τοῖς κροκοδείλοις
ἀμφοῖν καὶ πᾶσιν ὅλως τοῖς τοιούτοις· ἁπλῆν
τε γὰρ ἔχουσι καὶ μίαν τὴν κοιλίαν, καὶ τὰ μὲν ὁμοίαν τῇ
ὑείᾳ, τὰ δὲ τῇ τοῦ κυνός. Τὸ δὲ τῶν ὄφεων γένος ὅμοιόν
ἐστι καὶ ἔχει παραπλήσια σχεδὸν πάντα τῶν πεζῶν καὶ
10 ᾠοτόκων τοῖς σαύροις, εἴ τις μῆκος ἀποδοὺς αὐτοῖς ἀφέλοι
τοὺς πόδας. Φολιδωτόν τε γάρ ἐστι, καὶ τὰ πρανῆ καὶ τὰ
ὕπτια παραπλήσια τούτοις ἔχει· πλὴν ὄρχεις οὐκ ἔχει, ἀλλ'
ὥσπερ ἰχθὺς δύο πόρους εἰς ἓν συνάπτοντας καὶ τὴν ὑστέραν
μακρὰν καὶ δικρόαν. Τὰ δ' ἄλλα τὰ ἐντὸς τὰ αὐτὰ τοῖς
15 σαύροις, πλὴν ἅπαντα διὰ τὴν στενότητα καὶ τὸ μῆκος στενὰ
καὶ μακρὰ τὰ σπλάγχνα, ὥστε καὶ λανθάνειν διὰ τὴν
ὁμοιότητα τῶν σχημάτων· τήν τε γὰρ ἀρτηρίαν ἔχει σφόδρα
μακράν, ἔτι δὲ μακρότερον τὸν στόμαχον. Ἀρχὴ δὲ τῆς
ἀρτηρίας πρὸς αὐτῷ ἐστι τῷ στόματι, ὥστε δοκεῖν ὑπὸ ταύτην
20 εἶναι τὴν γλῶτταν. Προέχειν δὲ δοκεῖ τῆς γλώττης ἡ
ἀρτηρία διὰ τὸ συσπᾶσθαι τὴν γλῶτταν καὶ μὴ μένειν ὥςπερ
τοῖς ἄλλοις. Ἔστι δ' ἡ γλῶττα λεπτὴ καὶ μακρὰ καὶ
μέλαινα, καὶ ἐξέρχεται μέχρι πόρρω. Ἴδιον δὲ παρὰ τὰς
τῶν ἄλλων γλώττας ἔχουσι καὶ οἱ ὄφεις καὶ οἱ σαῦροι τὸ
25 δικρόαν αὐτῶν εἶναι τὴν γλῶτταν ἄκραν, πολὺ δὲ μάλιστα
οἱ ὄφεις· τὰ γὰρ ἄκρα αὐτῶν ἐστι λεπτὰ ὥσπερ τρίχες.
Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ἡ φώκη ἐσχισμένην τὴν γλῶτταν. Τὴν δὲ κοιλίαν
ὁ ὄφις ἔχει οἷον ἔντερον εὐρυχωρέστερον, ὁμοίαν τῇ τοῦ
κυνός· εἶτα τὸ ἔντερον μακρὸν καὶ λεπτὸν καὶ μέχρι τοῦ τέλους
30 ἕν. Ἐπὶ δὲ τοῦ φάρυγγος ἡ καρδία, μικρὰ δὲ καὶ νεφροειδής·
διὸ δόξειεν ἂν ἐνίοτε οὐ πρὸς τὸ στῆθος ἔχειν τὸ
ὀξύ. Εἶθ' ὁ πλεύμων ἁπλοῦς, ἰνώδει πόρῳ διηρθρωμένος καὶ
μακρὸς σφόδρα καὶ πολὺ ἀπηρτημένος τῆς καρδίας. Καὶ
τὸ ἧπαρ μακρὸν καὶ ἁπλοῦν, σπλῆνα δὲ μικρὸν καὶ στρογγύλον,
35 ὥσπερ καὶ οἱ σαῦροι. Χολὴν δ' ἔχει ὁμοίως τοῖς
1Its viscera resemble those of the pig, only that the liver is four times the size of that of the ox, and the other viscera in like proportion, while the spleen is comparatively small.
Much the same may be predicated of the properties of the stomach and the gut in oviparous quadrupeds, as in the land tortoise, the 5turtle, the lizard, both crocodiles, and, in fact, in all animals of the like kind; that is to say, their stomach is one and simple, resembling in some cases that of the pig, and in other cases that of the dog.
The serpent genus is similar and in almost all respects furnished similarly to the saurians among land animals, if one could only imagine these saurians to be increased in length and to 10be devoid of legs. That is to say, the serpent is coated with tessellated scutes, and resembles the saurian in its back and belly; only, by the way, it has no testicles, but, like fishes, has two ducts converging into one, and an ovary long and bifurcate. The rest of its internal organs are identical with those of the saurians, except that, owing to the narrowness and length of the animal, 15the viscera are correspondingly narrow and elongated, so that they are apt to escape recognition from the similarities in shape. Thus, the windpipe of the creature is exceptionally long, and the oesophagus is longer still, and the windpipe commences so close to the mouth that the tongue appears to be underneath it; and the windpipe seems to project over the tongue, owing to the fact that the 20tongue draws back into a sheath and does not remain in its place as in other animals. The tongue, moreover, is thin and long and black, and can be protruded to a great distance. And both serpents and saurians have this altogether exceptional property in the tongue, that it is forked at the outer extremity, and this property is the more marked in the serpent, for the tips of his tongue are as 25thin as hairs. The seal, also, by the way, has a split tongue.
The stomach of the serpent is like a more spacious gut, resembling the stomach of the dog; then comes the gut, long, narrow, and single to the end. The heart is situated close to the pharynx, small and kidney-shaped; and for this reason the organ might in some cases appear not to have the pointed end turned towards the breast. Then 30comes the lung, single, and articulated with a membranous passage, very long, and quite detached from the heart. The liver is long and simple; the spleen is short and round: as is the case in both respects with the saurians. Its gall resembles that of the fish; the water-snakes have it beside the liver, and the other snakes have it usually beside the gut. These creatures are all saw-toothed.
Much the same may be predicated of the properties of the stomach and the gut in oviparous quadrupeds, as in the land tortoise, the 5turtle, the lizard, both crocodiles, and, in fact, in all animals of the like kind; that is to say, their stomach is one and simple, resembling in some cases that of the pig, and in other cases that of the dog.
The serpent genus is similar and in almost all respects furnished similarly to the saurians among land animals, if one could only imagine these saurians to be increased in length and to 10be devoid of legs. That is to say, the serpent is coated with tessellated scutes, and resembles the saurian in its back and belly; only, by the way, it has no testicles, but, like fishes, has two ducts converging into one, and an ovary long and bifurcate. The rest of its internal organs are identical with those of the saurians, except that, owing to the narrowness and length of the animal, 15the viscera are correspondingly narrow and elongated, so that they are apt to escape recognition from the similarities in shape. Thus, the windpipe of the creature is exceptionally long, and the oesophagus is longer still, and the windpipe commences so close to the mouth that the tongue appears to be underneath it; and the windpipe seems to project over the tongue, owing to the fact that the 20tongue draws back into a sheath and does not remain in its place as in other animals. The tongue, moreover, is thin and long and black, and can be protruded to a great distance. And both serpents and saurians have this altogether exceptional property in the tongue, that it is forked at the outer extremity, and this property is the more marked in the serpent, for the tips of his tongue are as 25thin as hairs. The seal, also, by the way, has a split tongue.
The stomach of the serpent is like a more spacious gut, resembling the stomach of the dog; then comes the gut, long, narrow, and single to the end. The heart is situated close to the pharynx, small and kidney-shaped; and for this reason the organ might in some cases appear not to have the pointed end turned towards the breast. Then 30comes the lung, single, and articulated with a membranous passage, very long, and quite detached from the heart. The liver is long and simple; the spleen is short and round: as is the case in both respects with the saurians. Its gall resembles that of the fish; the water-snakes have it beside the liver, and the other snakes have it usually beside the gut. These creatures are all saw-toothed.
508b
1 ἰχθύσιν· οἱ μὲν γὰρ ὕδροι πρὸς τῷ ἥπατι ἔχουσιν, οἱ δ'
ἄλλοι πρὸς τοῖς ἐντέροις ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ. Καρχαρόδοντες δὲ
πάντες εἰσίν. Πλευρὰς δ' ἔχουσιν ἴσας ταῖς ἐν τῷ μηνὶ ἡμέραις·
τριάκοντα γὰρ ἔχουσιν. Λέγουσι δέ τινες συμβαίνειν περὶ
5 τοὺς ὄφεις τὸ αὐτὸ ὅπερ καὶ περὶ τοὺς νεοττοὺς τῶν χελιδόνων·
ἐὰν γάρ τις ἐκκεντήσῃ τὰ ὄμματα τῶν ὄφεων, φασὶ
φύεσθαι πάλιν. Καὶ αἱ κέρκοι δὲ ἀποτεμνόμεναι τῶν τε
σαύρων καὶ τῶν ὄφεων φύονται. Ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἰχθύσιν
ἔχει τὰ περὶ τὰ ἔντερα καὶ τὴν κοιλίαν· μίαν γὰρ καὶ
10 ἁπλῆν ἔχουσι, διαφέρουσαν τοῖς σχήμασιν. Ἔνιοι γὰρ πάμπαν
ἐντεροειδῆ ἔχουσιν, οἷον ὃν καλοῦσι σκάρον, ὃς δὴ καὶ
δοκεῖ μόνος ἰχθὺς μηρυκάζειν. Καὶ τὸ τοῦ ἐντέρου δὲ μέγεθος
ἁπλοῦν, καὶ ἀναδίπλωσιν ἔχει, ὃ ἀναλύεται εἰς ἕν. Ἴδιον δὲ
τῶν ἰχθύων ἐστὶ καὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων τῶν πλείστων τὸ ἔχειν ἀποφυάδας·
15 ἀλλ' οἱ μὲν ὄρνιθες κάτωθεν καὶ ὀλίγας, οἱ δ'
ἰχθύες ἄνωθεν περὶ τὴν κοιλίαν, καὶ ἔνιοι πολλάς, οἷον κωβιός,
γαλεός, πέρκη, σκορπίος, κίθαρος, τρίγλη, σπάρος·
ὁ δὲ κεστρεὺς ἐπὶ μὲν θάτερα τῆς κοιλίας πολλάς, ἐπὶ
δὲ θάτερα μίαν. Ἔνιοι δ' ἔχουσι μὲν ὀλίγας δέ, οἷον ἥπατος,
20 γλαῦκος· ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ χρύσοφρυς ὀλίγας. Διαφέρουσι δὲ
καὶ αὐτοὶ αὑτῶν, οἷον χρύσοφρυς ἔχει ὁ μὲν πλείους ὁ δ'
ἐλάττους. Εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ οἳ ὅλως οὐκ ἔχουσιν, οἷον οἱ πλεῖστοι
τῶν σελαχωδῶν· τῶν δ' ἄλλων οἱ μὲν ὀλίγας, οἱ δὲ καὶ
πάνυ πολλάς. Πάντες δὲ παρ' αὐτὴν ἔχουσι τὴν κοιλίαν τὰς
25 ἀποφυάδας οἱ ἰχθύες. Οἱ δ' ὄρνιθες ἔχουσι καὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλους
καὶ πρὸς τἆλλα ζῷα περὶ τὰ ἐντὸς μέρη διαφοράν. Οἱ
μὲν γὰρ ἔχουσι πρὸ τῆς κοιλίας πρόλοβον, οἷον ἀλεκτρυών,
φάττα, περιστερά, πέρδιξ· ἔστι δ' ὁ πρόλοβος δέρμα κοῖλον
καὶ μέγα, ἐν ᾧ ἡ τροφὴ πρώτη εἰσιοῦσα ἄπεπτός ἐστιν.
30 Ἔστι δ' αὐτόθι μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ στομάχου στενότερος, ἔπειτα
εὐρύτερος, ᾗ δὲ καθήκει πάλιν πρὸς τὴν κοιλίαν, λεπτότερος.
Τὴν δὲ κοιλίαν σαρκώδη καὶ στιφρὰν οἱ πλεῖστοι ἔχουσι, καὶ
ἔσωθεν δέρμα ἰσχυρὸν καὶ ἀφαιρούμενον ἀπὸ τοῦ σαρκώδους.
Οἱ δὲ πρόλοβον μὲν οὐκ ἔχουσιν, ἀλλ' ἀντὶ τούτου τὸν στόμαχον
35 εὐρὺν καὶ πλατύν, ἢ δι' ὅλου ἢ τὸ πρὸς τὴν κοιλίαν τεῖνον, οἷον
1Their ribs are as numerous as the days of the month; in other words, they are thirty in number.
Some affirm that the same phenomenon is observable with serpents as with swallow chicks; in other words, they say that if you prick out a serpent's eyes they will grow again. And further, the tails of 5saurians and of serpents, if they be cut off, will grow again.
With fishes the properties of the gut and stomach are similar; that is, they have a stomach single and simple, but variable in shape according to species. For in some cases the stomach is gut-shaped, as with the scarus, or parrot-fish; which fish, by the way, appears to be the only fish that chews the cud. 10And the whole length of the gut is simple, and if it have a reduplication or kink it loosens out again into a simple form.
An exceptional property in fishes and in birds for the most part is the being furnished with gut-appendages or caeca. Birds have them low down and few in number. Fishes have them high up about the stomach, and sometimes numerous, as in the goby, the 15galeos, the perch, the scorpaena, the citharus, the red mullet, and the sparus; the cestreus or grey mullet has several of them on one side of the belly, and on the other side only one. Some fish possess these appendages but only in small numbers, as the hepatus and the glaucus; and, by the way, they are few also in the dorado. These fishes differ also from one another 20within the same species, for in the dorado one individual has many and another few. Some fishes are entirely without the part, as the majority of the selachians. As for all the rest, some of them have a few and some a great many. And in all cases where the gut-appendages are found in fish, they are found close up to the stomach.
In regard to their internal parts birds differ 25from other animals and from one another. Some birds, for instance, have a crop in front of the stomach, as the barn-door cock, the cushat, the pigeon, and the partridge; and the crop consists of a large hollow skin, into which the food first enters and where it lies ingested. Just where the crop leaves the oesophagus it is somewhat narrow; by and by it broadens out, 30but where it communicates with the stomach it narrows down again. The stomach (or gizzard) in most birds is fleshy and hard, and inside is a strong skin which comes away from the fleshy part. Other birds have no crop, but instead of it an oesophagus wide and roomy, either all the way or in the part leading to the stomach, as with the daw, the raven, and the carrion-crow.
Some affirm that the same phenomenon is observable with serpents as with swallow chicks; in other words, they say that if you prick out a serpent's eyes they will grow again. And further, the tails of 5saurians and of serpents, if they be cut off, will grow again.
With fishes the properties of the gut and stomach are similar; that is, they have a stomach single and simple, but variable in shape according to species. For in some cases the stomach is gut-shaped, as with the scarus, or parrot-fish; which fish, by the way, appears to be the only fish that chews the cud. 10And the whole length of the gut is simple, and if it have a reduplication or kink it loosens out again into a simple form.
An exceptional property in fishes and in birds for the most part is the being furnished with gut-appendages or caeca. Birds have them low down and few in number. Fishes have them high up about the stomach, and sometimes numerous, as in the goby, the 15galeos, the perch, the scorpaena, the citharus, the red mullet, and the sparus; the cestreus or grey mullet has several of them on one side of the belly, and on the other side only one. Some fish possess these appendages but only in small numbers, as the hepatus and the glaucus; and, by the way, they are few also in the dorado. These fishes differ also from one another 20within the same species, for in the dorado one individual has many and another few. Some fishes are entirely without the part, as the majority of the selachians. As for all the rest, some of them have a few and some a great many. And in all cases where the gut-appendages are found in fish, they are found close up to the stomach.
In regard to their internal parts birds differ 25from other animals and from one another. Some birds, for instance, have a crop in front of the stomach, as the barn-door cock, the cushat, the pigeon, and the partridge; and the crop consists of a large hollow skin, into which the food first enters and where it lies ingested. Just where the crop leaves the oesophagus it is somewhat narrow; by and by it broadens out, 30but where it communicates with the stomach it narrows down again. The stomach (or gizzard) in most birds is fleshy and hard, and inside is a strong skin which comes away from the fleshy part. Other birds have no crop, but instead of it an oesophagus wide and roomy, either all the way or in the part leading to the stomach, as with the daw, the raven, and the carrion-crow.
509a
1 κολοιὸς καὶ κόραξ καὶ κορώνη. Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὁ ὄρτυξ τοῦ
στομάχου τὸ πλατὺ κάτω, καὶ ὁ αἰγοκέφαλος μικρὸν εὐρύτερον
τὸ κάτω καὶ ἡ γλαύξ. Νῆττα δὲ καὶ χὴν καὶ λάρος
καὶ καταρράκτης καὶ ὠτὶς τὸν στόμαχον εὐρὺν καὶ πλατὺν
5 ὅλον, καὶ ἄλλοι δὲ πολλοὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων ὁμοίως. Ἔνιοι δὲ τῆς
κοιλίας αὐτῆς τι ἔχουσιν ὅμοιον προλόβῳ, οἷον ἡ κεγχρηΐς.
Ἔστι δ' ἃ οὐκ ἔχει οὔτε τὸν στόμαχον οὔτε τὸν πρόλοβον εὐρύν,
ἀλλὰ τὴν κοιλίαν μακράν, ὅσα μικρὰ τῶν ὀρνίθων, οἷον χελιδὼν
καὶ στρουθός. Ὀλίγοι δ' οὔτε τὸν πρόλοβον ἔχουσιν οὔτε
10 τὸν στόμαχον εὐρύν, ἀλλὰ σφόδρα μακρόν, ὅσοι τὸν αὐχένα
μακρὸν ἔχουσιν, οἷον πορφυρίων· σχεδὸν δ' οὗτοι καὶ τὸ περίττωμα
ὑγρότερον τῶν ἄλλων προΐενται πάντες. Ὁ δ' ὄρτυξ
ἰδίως ἔχει ταῦτα πρὸς τοὺς ἄλλους· ἔχει γὰρ καὶ πρόλοβον
καὶ πρὸ τῆς γαστρὸς τὸν στόμαχον εὐρὺν καὶ πλάτος ἔχοντα·
15 διέχει δ' ὁ πρόλοβος τοῦ πρὸ τῆς γαστρὸς στομάχου
συχνὸν ὡς κατὰ μέγεθος. Ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ λεπτὸν τὸ ἔντερον
οἱ πλεῖστοι καὶ ἁπλοῦν ἀναλυόμενον. Τὰς δ' ἀποφυάδας
ἔχουσιν οἱ ὄρνιθες, καθάπερ εἴρηται, ὀλίγας, καὶ οὐκ ἄνωθεν
ὥσπερ οἱ ἰχθύες, ἀλλὰ κάτωθεν κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἐντέρου τελευτήν.
20 Ἔχουσι δ' οὐ πάντες ἀλλ' οἱ πλεῖστοι, οἷον ἀλεκτρυών,
πέρδιξ, νῆττα, νυκτικόραξ, λόκαλος, ἀσκάλαφος, χήν,
κύκνος, ὠτίς, γλαύξ. Ἔχουσι δὲ καὶ τῶν μικρῶν τινές, ἀλλὰ
μικρὰ πάμπαν, οἷον στρουθός.
1The quail also has the oesophagus widened out at the lower extremity, and in the aegocephalus and the owl the organ is slightly broader at the bottom than at the top. The duck, the goose, the gull, the catarrhactes, and the great bustard have the oesophagus wide and roomy from one end to the other, and the same 5applies to a great many other birds. In some birds there is a portion of the stomach that resembles a crop, as in the kestrel. In the case of small birds like the swallow and the sparrow neither the oesophagus nor the crop is wide, but the stomach is long. Some few have neither a crop nor a dilated oesophagus, but the latter is exceedingly long, as in long necked birds, such as the porphyrio, 10and, by the way, in the case of all these birds the excrement is unusually moist. The quail is exceptional in regard to these organs, as compared with other birds; in other words, it has a crop, and at the same time its oesophagus is wide and spacious in front of the stomach, and the crop is at some distance, relatively to its size, from the oesophagus at that part.
Further, in most birds, 15the gut is thin, and simple when loosened out. The gut-appendages or caeca in birds, as has been observed, are few in number, and are not situated high up, as in fishes, but low down towards the extremity of the gut. Birds, then, have caeca-not all, but the greater part of them, such as the barn-door cock, the partridge, the duck, the night-raven, (the localus,) the ascalaphus, the goose, 20the swan, the great bustard, and the owl. Some of the little birds also have these appendages; but the caeca in their case are exceedingly minute, as in the sparrow.
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Further, in most birds, 15the gut is thin, and simple when loosened out. The gut-appendages or caeca in birds, as has been observed, are few in number, and are not situated high up, as in fishes, but low down towards the extremity of the gut. Birds, then, have caeca-not all, but the greater part of them, such as the barn-door cock, the partridge, the duck, the night-raven, (the localus,) the ascalaphus, the goose, 20the swan, the great bustard, and the owl. Some of the little birds also have these appendages; but the caeca in their case are exceedingly minute, as in the sparrow.
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