Louis (Budé, 1964–69) · Thompson (1910)
Thompson (1910)
Greek line numbers are exact. The translations carry no Bekker numbers of their own, so those beside the English are aligned to the Greek: upright = fixed (anchored to this point in the text), italic grey = approximate (interpolated estimate).
Book 1,Chapter 1 (486a5–488b28)
486a
5 Τῶν ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις μορίων τὰ μέν ἐστιν ἀσύνθετα, ὅσα
διαιρεῖται εἰς ὁμοιομερῆ, οἷον σάρκες εἰς σάρκας, τὰ δὲ σύνθετα,
ὅσα εἰς ἀνομοιομερῆ, οἷον ἡ χεὶρ οὐκ εἰς χεῖρας διαιρεῖται
οὐδὲ τὸ πρόσωπον εἰς πρόσωπα. Τῶν δὲ τοιούτων ἔνια οὐ
μόνον μέρη ἀλλὰ καὶ μέλη καλεῖται. Τοιαῦτα δ' ἐστὶν ὅσα
10 τῶν μερῶν ὅλα ὄντα ἕτερα μέρη ἔχει ἐν αὑτοῖς, οἷον κεφαλὴ
καὶ σκέλος καὶ χεὶρ καὶ ὅλος ὁ βραχίων καὶ ὁ θώραξ·
ταῦτα γὰρ αὐτά τ' ἐστὶ μέρη ὅλα, καὶ ἔστιν αὐτῶν
ἕτερα μόρια. Πάντα δὲ τὰ ἀνομοιομερῆ σύγκειται ἐκ τῶν
ὁμοιομερῶν, οἷον χεὶρ ἐκ σαρκὸς καὶ νεύρων καὶ ὀστῶν. Ἔχει
15 δὲ τῶν ζῴων ἔνια μὲν πάντα τὰ μόρια ταὐτὰ ἀλλήλοις,
ἔνια δ' ἕτερα. Ταὐτὰ δὲ τὰ μὲν εἴδει τῶν μορίων ἐστίν, οἷον
ἀνθρώπου ῥὶς καὶ ὀφθαλμὸς ἀνθρώπου ῥινὶ καὶ ὀφθαλμῷ,
καὶ σαρκὶ σὰρξ καὶ ὀστῷ ὀστοῦν· τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ
ἵππου καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων, ὅσα τῷ εἴδει ταὐτὰ λέγομεν
20 ἑαυτοῖς· ὁμοίως γὰρ ὥσπερ τὸ ὅλον ἔχει πρὸς τὸ ὅλον, καὶ
τῶν μορίων ἔχει ἕκαστον πρὸς ἕκαστον. Τὰ δὲ ταὐτὰ μέν ἐστιν,
διαφέρει δὲ καθ' ὑπεροχὴν καὶ ἔλλειψιν, ὅσων τὸ γένος ἐστὶ
ταὐτόν. Λέγω δὲ γένος οἷον ὄρνιθα καὶ ἰχθύν· τούτων γὰρ
ἑκάτερον ἔχει διαφορὰν κατὰ τὸ γένος, καὶ ἔστιν εἴδη πλείω
25 ἰχθύων καὶ ὀρνίθων. Διαφέρει δὲ σχεδὸν τὰ πλεῖστα τῶν μορίων
5Of the parts of animals some are simple: to wit, all such as divide into parts uniform with themselves, as flesh into flesh; others are composite, such as divide into parts not uniform with themselves, as, for instance, the hand does not divide into hands nor the face into faces.
And of such as these, some are called not parts merely, but limbs or members. Such are those parts that, while 10entire in themselves, have within themselves other diverse parts: as for instance, the head, foot, hand, the arm as a whole, the chest; for these are all in themselves entire parts, and there are other diverse parts belonging to them.
All those parts that do not subdivide into parts uniform with themselves are composed of parts that do so subdivide, for instance, hand is composed of flesh, sinews, 15and bones. Of animals, some resemble one another in all their parts, while others have parts wherein they differ. Sometimes the parts are identical in form or species, as, for instance, one man's nose or eye resembles another man's nose or eye, flesh flesh, and bone bone; and in like manner with a horse, and with all other animals which we reckon to be of one and the same species: for as 20the whole is to the whole, so each to each are the parts severally. In other cases the parts are identical, save only for a difference in the way of excess or defect, as is the case in such animals as are of one and the same genus. By 'genus' I mean, for instance, Bird or Fish, for each of these is subject to difference in respect of its genus, and there are many species of fishes and of birds.
And of such as these, some are called not parts merely, but limbs or members. Such are those parts that, while 10entire in themselves, have within themselves other diverse parts: as for instance, the head, foot, hand, the arm as a whole, the chest; for these are all in themselves entire parts, and there are other diverse parts belonging to them.
All those parts that do not subdivide into parts uniform with themselves are composed of parts that do so subdivide, for instance, hand is composed of flesh, sinews, 15and bones. Of animals, some resemble one another in all their parts, while others have parts wherein they differ. Sometimes the parts are identical in form or species, as, for instance, one man's nose or eye resembles another man's nose or eye, flesh flesh, and bone bone; and in like manner with a horse, and with all other animals which we reckon to be of one and the same species: for as 20the whole is to the whole, so each to each are the parts severally. In other cases the parts are identical, save only for a difference in the way of excess or defect, as is the case in such animals as are of one and the same genus. By 'genus' I mean, for instance, Bird or Fish, for each of these is subject to difference in respect of its genus, and there are many species of fishes and of birds.
486b
5 ἐν αὑτοῖς παρὰ τὰς τῶν παθημάτων ἐναντιώσεις, οἷον
Χρώματος καὶ σχήματος, τῷ τὰ μὲν μᾶλλον αὐτὰ πεπονθέναι
τὰ δ' ἧττον, ἔτι δὲ πλήθει καὶ ὀλιγότητι καὶ μεγέθει
καὶ σμικρότητι καὶ ὅλως ὑπεροχῇ καὶ ἐλλείψει. Τὰ
μὲν γάρ ἐστι μαλακόσαρκα αὐτῶν τὰ δὲ σκληρόσαρκα,
10 καὶ τὰ μὲν μακρὸν ἔχει τὸ ῥύγχος τὰ δὲ βραχύ, καὶ
τὰ μὲν πολύπτερα τὰ δ' ὀλιγόπτερά ἐστιν. Οὐ μὴν ἀλλ'
ἔνιά γε καὶ ἐν τούτοις ἕτερα ἑτέροις μόρια ὑπάρχει, οἷον τὰ
μὲν ἔχει πλῆκτρα τὰ δ' οὔ, καὶ τὰ μὲν λόφον ἔχει τὰ
δ' οὐκ ἔχει. Ἀλλ' ὡς εἰπεῖν τὰ πλεῖστα καὶ ἐξ ὧν μερῶν ὁ
15 πᾶς ὄγκος συνέστηκεν, ἢ ταὐτά ἐστιν ἢ διαφέρει τοῖς τ' ἐναντίοις
καὶ καθ' ὑπεροχὴν καὶ ἔλλειψιν· τὸ γὰρ μᾶλλον καὶ
ἧττον ὑπεροχὴν ἄν τις καὶ ἔλλειψιν θείη. Ἔνια δὲ τῶν ζῴων
οὔτε εἴδει τὰ μόρια ταὐτὰ ἔχει οὔτε καθ' ὑπεροχὴν καὶ ἔλλειψιν,
ἀλλὰ κατ' ἀναλογίαν, οἷον πέπονθεν ὀστοῦν πρὸς ἄκανθαν
20 καὶ ὄνυξ πρὸς ὁπλὴν καὶ χεὶρ πρὸς χηλὴν καὶ πρὸς
πτερὸν λεπίς· ὃ γὰρ ἐν ὄρνιθι πτερόν, τοῦτο ἐν τῷ ἰχθύι ἐστὶ λεπίς.
Κατὰ μὲν οὖν τὰ μόρια ἃ ἔχουσιν ἕκαστα τῶν ζῴων, τοῦτόν
τε τὸν τρόπον ἕτερά ἐστι καὶ ταὐτά, καὶ ἔτι τῇ θέσει τῶν
μερῶν· πολλὰ γὰρ τῶν ζῴων ἔχει μὲν ταὐτὰ μέρη, ἀλλὰ
25 κείμενα οὐχ ὡσαύτως, οἷον μαστοὺς τὰ μὲν ἐν τῷ στήθει τὰ
5Within the limits of genera, most of the parts as a rule exhibit differences through contrast of the property or accident, such as colour and shape, to which they are subject: in that some are more and some in a less degree the subject of the same property or accident; and also in the way of multitude or fewness, magnitude or parvitude, in short in the way of excess or defect. Thus in some the texture of the flesh 10is soft, in others firm; some have a long bill, others a short one; some have abundance of feathers, others have only a small quantity. It happens further that some have parts that others have not: for instance, some have spurs and others not, some have crests and others not; but as a general rule, most parts and those that go to make up the bulk of the body are either identical with one another, or differ from 15one another in the way of contrast and of excess and defect. For 'the more' and 'the less' may be represented as 'excess' or 'defect'.
Once again, we may have to do with animals whose parts are neither identical in form nor yet identical save for differences in the way of excess or defect: but they are the same only in the way of analogy, as, for instance, bone is only analogous to fish-bone, nail to hoof, hand 20to claw, and scale to feather; for what the feather is in a bird, the scale is in a fish.
The parts, then, which animals severally possess are diverse from, or identical with, one another in the fashion above described. And they are so furthermore in the way of local disposition: for many animals have identical organs that differ in position; for instance, some have teats in the breast, others close to the thighs.
Once again, we may have to do with animals whose parts are neither identical in form nor yet identical save for differences in the way of excess or defect: but they are the same only in the way of analogy, as, for instance, bone is only analogous to fish-bone, nail to hoof, hand 20to claw, and scale to feather; for what the feather is in a bird, the scale is in a fish.
The parts, then, which animals severally possess are diverse from, or identical with, one another in the fashion above described. And they are so furthermore in the way of local disposition: for many animals have identical organs that differ in position; for instance, some have teats in the breast, others close to the thighs.
487a
1 δὲ πρὸς τοῖς μηροῖς. Ἔστι δὲ τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν τὰ μὲν μαλακὰ
καὶ ὑγρά, τὰ δὲ ξηρὰ καὶ στερεά, ὑγρὰ μέν, ἢ ὅλως
ἢ ἕως ἂν ᾖ ἐν τῇ φύσει, οἷον αἷμα, ἰχώρ, πιμελή, στέαρ,
μυελός, γονή, χολή, γάλα ἐν τοῖς ἔχουσι, σάρξ τε καὶ
5 τὰ τούτοις ἀνάλογον, ἔτι ἄλλον τρόπον τὰ περιττώματα,
οἷον φλέγμα, καὶ τὰ ὑποστήματα τῆς κοιλίας καὶ κύστεως·
ξηρὰ δὲ καὶ στερεὰ οἷον νεῦρον, δέρμα, φλέψ, θρίξ, ὀστοῦν,
χόνδρος, ὄνυξ, κέρας (ὁμώνυμον γὰρ τὸ μέρος, ὅταν τῷ
σχήματι καὶ τὸ ὅλον λέγηται κέρας), ἔτι ὅσα ἀνάλογον
10 τούτοις.
Αἱ δὲ διαφοραὶ τῶν ζῴων εἰσὶ κατά τε τοὺς βίους καὶ
τὰς πράξεις καὶ τὰ ἤθη καὶ τὰ μόρια, περὶ ὧν τύπῳ μὲν
εἴπωμεν πρῶτον, ὕστερον δὲ περὶ ἕκαστον γένος ἐπιστήσαντες
ἐροῦμεν. Εἰσὶ δὲ διαφοραὶ κατὰ μὲν τοὺς βίους καὶ τὰ ἤθη
15 καὶ τὰς πράξεις αἱ τοιαίδε, ᾗ τὰ μὲν ἔνυδρα αὐτῶν ἐστι τὰ
δὲ χερσαῖα, ἔνυδρα δὲ διχῶς, τὰ μὲν ὅτι τὸν βίον καὶ τὴν
τροφὴν ποιεῖται ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ, καὶ δέχεται τὸ ὑγρὸν καὶ
ἀφίησι, τούτου δὲ στερισκόμενα οὐ δύναται ζῆν, οἷον πολλοῖς
συμβαίνει τῶν ἰχθύων· τὰ δὲ τὴν μὲν τροφὴν ποιεῖται καὶ
20 τὴν διατριβὴν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ, οὐ μέντοι δέχεται τὸ ὕδωρ ἀλλὰ
τὸν ἀέρα, καὶ γεννᾷ ἔξω. Πολλὰ δ' ἐστὶ τοιαῦτα καὶ πεζά,
ὥσπερ ἐνυδρὶς καὶ λάταξ καὶ κροκόδειλος, καὶ πτηνά, οἷον
αἴθυια καὶ κολυμβίς, καὶ ἄποδα, οἷον ὕδρος. Ἔνια δὲ τὴν
μὲν τροφὴν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ ποιεῖται καὶ οὐ δύναται ζῆν ἐκτός,
25 οὐ μέντοι δέχεται οὔτε τὸν ἀέρα οὔτε τὸ ὑγρόν, οἷον ἀκαλήφη
καὶ τὰ ὄστρεα. Τῶν δ' ἐνύδρων τὰ μέν ἐστι θαλάττια, τὰ δὲ
ποτάμια, τὰ δὲ λιμναῖα, τὰ δὲ τελματιαῖα, οἷον βάτραχος
καὶ κορδύλος. Τῶν δὲ χερσαίων τὰ μὲν δέχεται τὸν
ἀέρα καὶ ἀφίησιν, ὃ καλεῖται ἀναπνεῖν καὶ ἐκπνεῖν, οἷον
30 ἄνθρωπος καὶ πάντα ὅσα πλεύμονα ἔχει τῶν χερσαίων· τὰ
δὲ τὸν ἀέρα μὲν οὐ δέχεται, ζῇ δὲ καὶ τὴν τροφὴν ἔχει ἐν τῇ
γῇ, οἷον σφὴξ καὶ μέλιττα καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ἔντομα. Καλῶ δ'
ἔντομα ὅσα ἔχει κατὰ τὸ σῶμα ἐντομάς, ἢ ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις
ἢ ἐν τούτοις τε καὶ τοῖς πρανέσιν. Καὶ τῶν μὲν χερσαίων
1Of the substances that are composed of parts uniform (or homogeneous) with themselves, some are soft and moist, others are dry and solid. The soft and moist are such either absolutely or so long as they are in their natural conditions, as, for instance, blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow, sperm, gall, milk in such as have it 5flesh and the like; and also, in a different way, the superfluities, as phlegm and the excretions of the belly and the bladder. The dry and solid are such as sinew, skin, vein, hair, bone, gristle, nail, horn (a term which as applied to the part involves an ambiguity, since the whole also by virtue of its form is designated horn), and such parts as present an analogy to these.
Animals differ from one 10another in their modes of subsistence, in their actions, in their habits, and in their parts. Concerning these differences we shall first speak in broad and general terms, and subsequently we shall treat of the same with close reference to each particular genus.
Differences are manifested in modes of subsistence, in habits, in actions performed. For instance, some animals live in water and others on land. 15And of those that live in water some do so in one way, and some in another: that is to say, some live and feed in the water, take in and emit water, and cannot live if deprived of water, as is the case with the great majority of fishes; others get their food and spend their days in the water, but do not take in water but air, nor do they bring forth in the water. Many of these creatures are furnished with 20feet, as the otter, the beaver, and the crocodile; some are furnished with wings, as the diver and the grebe; some are destitute of feet, as the water-snake. Some creatures get their living in the water and cannot exist outside it: but for all that do not take in either air or water, as, for instance, the sea-nettle and the oyster. And of creatures that live in the water some live in the sea, some in 25rivers, some in lakes, and some in marshes, as the frog and the newt.
Of animals that live on dry land some take in air and emit it, which phenomena are termed 'inhalation' and 'exhalation'; as, for instance, man and all such land animals as are furnished with lungs. Others, again, do not inhale air, yet live and find their sustenance on dry land; as, for instance, the wasp, the bee, and all other insects. 30And by 'insects' I mean such creatures as have nicks or notches on their bodies, either on their bellies or on both backs and bellies.
And of land animals many, as has been said, derive their subsistence from the water; but of creatures that live in and inhale water not a single one derives its subsistence from dry land.
Animals differ from one 10another in their modes of subsistence, in their actions, in their habits, and in their parts. Concerning these differences we shall first speak in broad and general terms, and subsequently we shall treat of the same with close reference to each particular genus.
Differences are manifested in modes of subsistence, in habits, in actions performed. For instance, some animals live in water and others on land. 15And of those that live in water some do so in one way, and some in another: that is to say, some live and feed in the water, take in and emit water, and cannot live if deprived of water, as is the case with the great majority of fishes; others get their food and spend their days in the water, but do not take in water but air, nor do they bring forth in the water. Many of these creatures are furnished with 20feet, as the otter, the beaver, and the crocodile; some are furnished with wings, as the diver and the grebe; some are destitute of feet, as the water-snake. Some creatures get their living in the water and cannot exist outside it: but for all that do not take in either air or water, as, for instance, the sea-nettle and the oyster. And of creatures that live in the water some live in the sea, some in 25rivers, some in lakes, and some in marshes, as the frog and the newt.
Of animals that live on dry land some take in air and emit it, which phenomena are termed 'inhalation' and 'exhalation'; as, for instance, man and all such land animals as are furnished with lungs. Others, again, do not inhale air, yet live and find their sustenance on dry land; as, for instance, the wasp, the bee, and all other insects. 30And by 'insects' I mean such creatures as have nicks or notches on their bodies, either on their bellies or on both backs and bellies.
And of land animals many, as has been said, derive their subsistence from the water; but of creatures that live in and inhale water not a single one derives its subsistence from dry land.
487b
1 πολλά, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ἐκ τοῦ ὑγροῦ τὴν τροφὴν πορίζεται
τῶν δ' ἐνύδρων καὶ δεχομένων τὴν θάλατταν οὐδὲν ἐκ τῆς
γῆς. Ἔνια δὲ τῶν ζῴων τὸ μὲν πρῶτον ζῇ ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ,
ἔπειτα μεταβάλλει εἰς ἄλλην μορφὴν καὶ ζῇ ἔξω, οἷον
5 ἐπὶ τῶν ἐν τοῖς ποταμοῖς ἀσκαρίδων· γίνεται γὰρ ἐξ αὐτῶν ὁ
οἶστρος. Ἔτι τὰ μέν ἐστι μόνιμα τῶν ζῴων, τὰ δὲ μεταβλητικά.
Ἔστι δὲ τὰ μόνιμα ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ· τῶν δὲ χερσαίων οὐδὲν
μόνιμον. Ἐν δὲ τῷ ὑγρῷ πολλὰ τῷ προσπεφυκέναι ζῇ, οἷον
γένη ὀστρέων πολλά. Δοκεῖ δὲ καὶ ὁ σπόγγος ἔχειν τινὰ
10 αἴσθησιν· σημεῖον δ' ὅτι χαλεπώτερον ἀποσπᾶται, ἂν μὴ
γένηται λαθραίως ἡ κίνησις, ὥς φασιν. Τὰ δὲ καὶ προσφύεται
καὶ ἀπολύεται, οἷόν ἐστι γένος τι τῆς καλουμένης ἀκαλήφης·
τούτων γάρ τινες νύκτωρ ἀπολυόμεναι νέμονται.
Πολλὰ δ' ἀπολελυμένα μέν ἐστιν ἀκίνητα δέ, οἷον ὄστρεα καὶ
15 τὰ καλούμενα ὁλοθούρια. Τὰ δὲ νευστικά, οἷον ἰχθύες καὶ τὰ
μαλάκια καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα, οἷον κάραβοι. Τὰ δὲ πορευτικά,
οἷον τὸ τῶν καρκίνων γένος· τοῦτο γὰρ ἔνυδρον ὂν
τὴν φύσιν πορευτικόν ἐστιν. Τῶν δὲ χερσαίων ἐστὶ τὰ μὲν
πτηνά, ὥσπερ ὄρνιθες καὶ μέλιτται, καὶ ταῦτ' ἄλλον τρόπον
20 ἀλλήλων, τὰ δὲ πεζά. Καὶ τῶν πεζῶν τὰ μὲν πορευτικά,
τὰ δ' ἑρπυστικά, τὰ δ' ἰλυσπαστικά. Πτηνὸν δὲ μόνον
οὐδέν ἐστιν, ὥσπερ νευστικὸν μόνον ἰχθύς· καὶ γὰρ τὰ δερμόπτερα
πεζεύει, καὶ νυκτερίδι πόδες εἰσί, καὶ τῇ φώκῃ κεκολοβωμένοι
πόδες. Καὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων εἰσί τινες κακόποδες,
25 οἳ διὰ τοῦτο καλοῦνται ἄποδες· ἔστι δ' εὔπτερον τοῦτο τὸ ὀρνίθιον.
Σχεδὸν δὲ καὶ τὰ ὅμοια αὐτῷ εὔπτερα μὲν κακόποδα
δ' ἐστίν, οἷον χελιδὼν καὶ δρεπανίς· ὁμοιότροπά τε γὰρ
καὶ ὁμοιόπτερα πάντα ταῦτα, καὶ τὰς ὄψεις ἐγγὺς ἀλλήλων.
Φαίνεται δ' ὁ μὲν ἄπους πᾶσαν ὥραν, ἡ δὲ δρεπανὶς
30 ὅταν ὕσῃ τοῦ θέρους· τότε γὰρ ὁρᾶται καὶ ἁλίσκεται, ὅλως
δὲ καὶ σπάνιόν ἐστι τοῦτο τὸ ὄρνεον. Πορευτικὰ δὲ καὶ νευστικὰ
πολλὰ τῶν ζῴων ἐστίν.
Εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ αἱ τοιαίδε διαφοραὶ κατὰ τοὺς βίους καὶ
τὰς πράξεις. Τὰ μὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν ἐστιν ἀγελαῖα τὰ δὲ
1Some animals at first live in water, and by and by change their shape and live out of water, as is the case with river worms, for out of these the gadfly develops.
Furthermore, some animals are stationary, and some are erratic. Stationary animals are found in water, but no such creature is found on dry land. In 5the water are many creatures that live in close adhesion to an external object, as is the case with several kinds of oyster. And, by the way, the sponge appears to be endowed with a certain sensibility: as a proof of which it is alleged that the difficulty in detaching it from its moorings is increased if the movement to detach it be not covertly applied.
Other creatures adhere at one time to 10an object and detach themselves from it at other times, as is the case with a species of the so-called sea-nettle; for some of these creatures seek their food in the night-time loose and unattached.
Many creatures are unattached but motionless, as is the case with oysters and the so-called holothuria. Some can swim, as, for instance, fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans, such as the crawfish. 15But some of these last move by walking, as the crab, for it is the nature of the creature, though it lives in water, to move by walking.
Of land animals some are furnished with wings, such as birds and bees, and these are so furnished in different ways one from another; others are furnished with feet. Of the animals that are furnished with feet some walk, some creep, and some wriggle. But no 20creature is able only to move by flying, as the fish is able only to swim, for the animals with leathern wings can walk; the bat has feet and the seal has imperfect feet.
Some birds have feet of little power, and are therefore called Apodes. This little bird is powerful on the wing; and, as a rule, birds that resemble it are weak-footed and strong winged, such as the swallow and the drepanis 25or (?) Alpine swift; for all these birds resemble one another in their habits and in their plumage, and may easily be mistaken one for another. (The apus is to be seen at all seasons, but the drepanis only after rainy weather in summer; for this is the time when it is seen and captured, though, as a general rule, it is a rare bird.)
Again, some animals move by walking on the ground as well 30as by swimming in water.
Furthermore, the following differences are manifest in their modes of living and in their actions. Some are gregarious, some are solitary, whether they be furnished with feet or wings or be fitted for a life in the water; and some partake of both characters, the solitary and the gregarious.
Furthermore, some animals are stationary, and some are erratic. Stationary animals are found in water, but no such creature is found on dry land. In 5the water are many creatures that live in close adhesion to an external object, as is the case with several kinds of oyster. And, by the way, the sponge appears to be endowed with a certain sensibility: as a proof of which it is alleged that the difficulty in detaching it from its moorings is increased if the movement to detach it be not covertly applied.
Other creatures adhere at one time to 10an object and detach themselves from it at other times, as is the case with a species of the so-called sea-nettle; for some of these creatures seek their food in the night-time loose and unattached.
Many creatures are unattached but motionless, as is the case with oysters and the so-called holothuria. Some can swim, as, for instance, fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans, such as the crawfish. 15But some of these last move by walking, as the crab, for it is the nature of the creature, though it lives in water, to move by walking.
Of land animals some are furnished with wings, such as birds and bees, and these are so furnished in different ways one from another; others are furnished with feet. Of the animals that are furnished with feet some walk, some creep, and some wriggle. But no 20creature is able only to move by flying, as the fish is able only to swim, for the animals with leathern wings can walk; the bat has feet and the seal has imperfect feet.
Some birds have feet of little power, and are therefore called Apodes. This little bird is powerful on the wing; and, as a rule, birds that resemble it are weak-footed and strong winged, such as the swallow and the drepanis 25or (?) Alpine swift; for all these birds resemble one another in their habits and in their plumage, and may easily be mistaken one for another. (The apus is to be seen at all seasons, but the drepanis only after rainy weather in summer; for this is the time when it is seen and captured, though, as a general rule, it is a rare bird.)
Again, some animals move by walking on the ground as well 30as by swimming in water.
Furthermore, the following differences are manifest in their modes of living and in their actions. Some are gregarious, some are solitary, whether they be furnished with feet or wings or be fitted for a life in the water; and some partake of both characters, the solitary and the gregarious.
488a
1 μοναδικά, καὶ πεζὰ καὶ πτηνὰ καὶ πλωτά, τὰ δ' ἐπαμφοτερίζει.
Καὶ τῶν ἀγελαίων καὶ τῶν μοναδικῶν τὰ μὲν
πολιτικὰ τὰ δὲ σποραδικά ἐστιν. Ἀγελαῖα μὲν οὖν οἷον ἐν
τοῖς πτηνοῖς τὸ τῶν περιστερῶν γένος καὶ γέρανος καὶ κύκνος
5 (γαμψώνυχον δ' οὐδὲν ἀγελαῖον), καὶ τῶν πλωτῶν πολλὰ
γένη τῶν ἰχθύων, οἷον οὓς καλοῦσι δρομάδας, θύννοι, πηλαμύδες,
ἀμίαι· ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος ἐπαμφοτερίζει. Πολιτικὰ δ'
ἐστὶν ὧν ἕν τι καὶ κοινὸν γίνεται πάντων τὸ ἔργον· ὅπερ οὐ
πάντα ποιεῖ τὰ ἀγελαῖα. Ἔστι δὲ τοιοῦτον ἄνθρωπος, μέλιττα,
10 σφήξ, μύρμηξ, γέρανος. Καὶ τούτων τὰ μὲν ὑφ'
ἡγεμόνα ἐστὶ τὰ δ' ἄναρχα, οἷον γέρανος μὲν καὶ τὸ τῶν
μελιττῶν γένος ὑφ' ἡγεμόνα, μύρμηκες δὲ καὶ μυρία ἄλλα
ἄναρχα. Καὶ τὰ μὲν ἐπιδημητικὰ καὶ τῶν ἀγελαίων
καὶ τῶν μοναδικῶν, τὰ δ' ἐκτοπιστικά. Καὶ τὰ μὲν σαρκοφάγα,
15 τὰ δὲ καρποφάγα, τὰ δὲ παμφάγα, τὰ δ' ἰδιότροφα,
οἷον τὸ τῶν μελιττῶν γένος καὶ τὸ τῶν ἀραχνῶν·
τὸ μὲν γὰρ μέλιτι καί τισιν ἄλλοις ὀλίγοις τῶν γλυκέων
χρῆται τροφῇ, οἱ δ' ἀράχναι ἀπὸ τῆς τῶν μυιῶν θήρας
ζῶσιν, τὰ δ' ἰχθύσι χρῶνται τροφῇ. Καὶ τὰ μὲν θηρευτικά,
20 τὰ δὲ θησαυριστικὰ τῆς τροφῆς ἐστι, τὰ δ' οὔ. Καὶ τὰ μὲν
οἰκητικὰ τὰ δ' ἄοικα, οἰκητικὰ μὲν οἷον ἀσπάλαξ, μῦς,
μύρμηξ, μέλιττα, ἄοικα δὲ πολλὰ τῶν ἐντόμων καὶ τῶν
τετραπόδων. Ἔτι τοῖς τόποις τὰ μὲν τρωγλοδυτικά, οἷον
σαύρα, ὄφις, τὰ δ' ὑπέργεια, οἷον ἵππος, κύων. Καὶ τὰ
25 μὲν τρηματώδη τὰ δ' ἄτρητα. Καὶ τὰ μὲν νυκτερόβια, οἷον
γλαύξ, νυκτερίς, τὰ δ' ἐν τῷ φωτὶ ζῇ. Ἔτι δ' ἥμερα καὶ
ἄγρια, καὶ τὰ μὲν ἀεί, οἷον ὄνος καὶ ὀρεὺς ἀεὶ ἥμερα,
τὰ δ' ἄγρια, ὥσπερ πάρδαλις καὶ λύκος· τὰ δὲ καὶ
ἡμεροῦσθαι δύναται ταχύ, οἷον ἐλέφας. Ἔτι ἄλλον τρόπον·
30 πάντα γὰρ ὅσα ἥμερά ἐστι γένη, καὶ ἄγριά ἐστιν, οἷον ἵπποι,
βόες, ὕες, ἄνθρωποι, πρόβατα, αἶγες, κύνες. Καὶ τὰ μὲν ψοφητικά,
τὰ δ' ἄφωνα, τὰ δὲ φωνήεντα, καὶ τούτων τὰ
μὲν διάλεκτον ἔχει τὰ δ' ἀγράμματα, καὶ τὰ μὲν κωτίλα
τὰ δὲ σιγηλά, τὰ δ' ᾠδικὰ τὰ δ' ἄνῳδα· πάντων
1And of the gregarious, some are disposed to combine for social purposes, others to live each for its own self.
Gregarious creatures are, among birds, such as the pigeon, the crane, and the swan; and, by the way, no bird furnished with crooked talons is gregarious. Of creatures that live in water many kinds of fishes are gregarious, such 5as the so-called migrants, the tunny, the pelamys, and the bonito.
Man, by the way, presents a mixture of the two characters, the gregarious and the solitary.
Social creatures are such as have some one common object in view; and this property is not common to all creatures that are gregarious. Such social creatures are man, the bee, the wasp, the ant, and the crane.
Again, of these social creatures some submit to a 10ruler, others are subject to no governance: as, for instance, the crane and the several sorts of bee submit to a ruler, whereas ants and numerous other creatures are every one his own master.
And again, both of gregarious and of solitary animals, some are attached to a fixed home and others are erratic or nomad.
Also, some are carnivorous, some graminivorous, some omnivorous: whilst some feed on a peculiar diet, as for 15instance the bees and the spiders, for the bee lives on honey and certain other sweets, and the spider lives by catching flies; and some creatures live on fish. Again, some creatures catch their food, others treasure it up; whereas others do not so.
Some creatures provide themselves with a dwelling, others go without one: of the former kind are the mole, the mouse, the ant, the bee; of the latter kind are many insects and 20quadrupeds. Further, in respect to locality of dwelling place, some creatures dwell under ground, as the lizard and the snake; others live on the surface of the ground, as the horse and the dog. make to themselves holes, others do not Some are nocturnal, as the owl and the bat; others live in the daylight.
Moreover, some creatures are tame and some are wild: some are at all times tame, as man and the mule; others are 25at all times savage, as the leopard and the wolf; and some creatures can be rapidly tamed, as the elephant.
Again, we may regard animals in another light. For, whenever a race of animals is found domesticated, the same is always to be found in a wild condition; as we find to be the case with horses, kine, swine, (men), sheep, goats, and dogs.
Further, some animals emit sound while others are mute, and some are endowed 30with voice: of these latter some have articulate speech, while others are inarticulate; some are given to continual chirping and twittering some are prone to silence; some are musical, and some unmusical; but all animals without exception exercise their power of singing or chattering chiefly in connexion with the intercourse of the sexes.
Gregarious creatures are, among birds, such as the pigeon, the crane, and the swan; and, by the way, no bird furnished with crooked talons is gregarious. Of creatures that live in water many kinds of fishes are gregarious, such 5as the so-called migrants, the tunny, the pelamys, and the bonito.
Man, by the way, presents a mixture of the two characters, the gregarious and the solitary.
Social creatures are such as have some one common object in view; and this property is not common to all creatures that are gregarious. Such social creatures are man, the bee, the wasp, the ant, and the crane.
Again, of these social creatures some submit to a 10ruler, others are subject to no governance: as, for instance, the crane and the several sorts of bee submit to a ruler, whereas ants and numerous other creatures are every one his own master.
And again, both of gregarious and of solitary animals, some are attached to a fixed home and others are erratic or nomad.
Also, some are carnivorous, some graminivorous, some omnivorous: whilst some feed on a peculiar diet, as for 15instance the bees and the spiders, for the bee lives on honey and certain other sweets, and the spider lives by catching flies; and some creatures live on fish. Again, some creatures catch their food, others treasure it up; whereas others do not so.
Some creatures provide themselves with a dwelling, others go without one: of the former kind are the mole, the mouse, the ant, the bee; of the latter kind are many insects and 20quadrupeds. Further, in respect to locality of dwelling place, some creatures dwell under ground, as the lizard and the snake; others live on the surface of the ground, as the horse and the dog. make to themselves holes, others do not Some are nocturnal, as the owl and the bat; others live in the daylight.
Moreover, some creatures are tame and some are wild: some are at all times tame, as man and the mule; others are 25at all times savage, as the leopard and the wolf; and some creatures can be rapidly tamed, as the elephant.
Again, we may regard animals in another light. For, whenever a race of animals is found domesticated, the same is always to be found in a wild condition; as we find to be the case with horses, kine, swine, (men), sheep, goats, and dogs.
Further, some animals emit sound while others are mute, and some are endowed 30with voice: of these latter some have articulate speech, while others are inarticulate; some are given to continual chirping and twittering some are prone to silence; some are musical, and some unmusical; but all animals without exception exercise their power of singing or chattering chiefly in connexion with the intercourse of the sexes.
488b
1 δὲ κοινὸν τὸ περὶ τὰς ὀχείας μάλιστα ᾄδειν καὶ λαλεῖν.
Καὶ τὰ μὲν ἄγροικα, ὥσπερ φάττα, τὰ δ' ὄρεια, ὥσπερ
ἔποψ, τὰ δὲ συνανθρωπίζει, οἷον περιστερά. Καὶ τὰ μὲν
ἀφροδισιαστικά, οἷον τὸ τῶν περδίκων καὶ ἀλεκτρυόνων γένος,
5 τὰ δ' ἁγνευτικά, οἷον τὸ τῶν κορακοειδῶν ὀρνίθων γένος·
ταῦτα γὰρ σπανίως ποιεῖται τὴν ὀχείαν. Καὶ τῶν θαλαττίων
τὰ μὲν πελάγια, τὰ δ' αἰγιαλώδη, τὰ δὲ πετραῖα.
Ἔτι τὰ μὲν ἀμυντικὰ τὰ δὲ φυλακτικά· ἔστι δ'
ἀμυντικὰ μὲν ὅσα ἢ ἐπιτίθεται ἢ ἀδικούμενα ἀμύνεται, φυλακτικὰ
10 δ' ὅσα πρὸς τὸ μὴ παθεῖν τι ἔχει ἐν αὑτοῖς ἀλεωρήν.
Διαφέρουσι δὲ καὶ ταῖς τοιαῖσδε διαφοραῖς κατὰ τὸ ἦθος.
Τὰ μὲν γάρ ἐστι πρᾶα καὶ δύσθυμα καὶ οὐκ ἐνστατικά, οἷον
βοῦς, τὰ δὲ θυμώδη καὶ ἐνστατικὰ καὶ ἀμαθῆ, οἷον ὗς ἄγριος,
15 τὰ δὲ φρόνιμα καὶ δειλά, οἷον ἔλαφος, δασύπους,
τὰ δ' ἀνελεύθερα καὶ ἐπίβουλα, οἷον οἱ ὄφεις, τὰ δ' ἐλευθέρια
καὶ ἀνδρεῖα καὶ εὐγενῆ, οἷον λέων, τὰ δὲ γενναῖα καὶ
ἄγρια καὶ ἐπίβουλα, οἷον λύκος· εὐγενὲς μὲν γάρ ἐστι τὸ
ἐξ ἀγαθοῦ γένους, γενναῖον δὲ τὸ μὴ ἐξιστάμενον ἐκ τῆς αὑτοῦ
20 φύσεως. Καὶ τὰ μὲν πανοῦργα καὶ κακοῦργα, οἷον ἀλώπηξ,
τὰ δὲ θυμικὰ καὶ φιλητικὰ καὶ θωπευτικά, οἷον
κύων, τὰ δὲ πρᾶα καὶ τιθασσευτικά, οἷον ἐλέφας, τὰ δ'
αἰσχυντηλὰ καὶ φυλακτικά, οἷον χήν, τὰ δὲ φθονερὰ καὶ
φιλόκαλα, οἷον ταώς. Βουλευτικὸν δὲ μόνον ἄνθρωπός ἐστι
25 τῶν ζῴων. Καὶ μνήμης μὲν καὶ διδαχῆς πολλὰ κοινωνεῖ,
ἀναμιμνήσκεσθαι δ' οὐδὲν ἄλλο δύναται πλὴν ἄνθρωπος.
Περὶ ἕκαστον δὲ τῶν γενῶν τά τε περὶ τὰ ἤθη καὶ τοὺς βίους
ὕστερον λεχθήσεται δι' ἀκριβείας μᾶλλον.
1Again, some creatures live in the fields, as the cushat; some on the mountains, as the hoopoe; some frequent the abodes of men, as the pigeon.
Some, again, are peculiarly salacious, as the partridge, the barn-door cock and their congeners; others are inclined to chastity, as the whole tribe of crows, 5for birds of this kind indulge but rarely in sexual intercourse.
Of marine animals, again, some live in the open seas, some near the shore, some on rocks.
Furthermore, some are combative under offence; others are provident for defence. Of the former kind are such as act as aggressors upon others or retaliate when subjected to ill usage, and of the latter kind are such as merely 10have some means of guarding themselves against attack.
Animals also differ from one another in regard to character in the following respects. Some are good-tempered, sluggish, and little prone to ferocity, as the ox; others are quick tempered, ferocious and unteachable, as the wild boar; some are intelligent and timid, as the stag and the hare; others are mean and treacherous, 15as the snake; others are noble and courageous and high-bred, as the lion; others are thorough-bred and wild and treacherous, as the wolf: for, by the way, an animal is highbred if it come from a noble stock, and an animal is thorough-bred if it does not deflect from its racial characteristics.
Further, some are crafty and mischievous, as the fox; some are spirited and affectionate 20and fawning, as the dog; others are easy-tempered and easily domesticated, as the elephant; others are cautious and watchful, as the goose; others are jealous and self-conceited, as the peacock. But of all animals man alone is capable of deliberation.
Many animals have memory, and are capable of instruction; but no other creature except man can recall the past at will.
With 25regard to the several genera of animals, particulars as to their habits of life and modes of existence will be discussed more fully by and by.
Some, again, are peculiarly salacious, as the partridge, the barn-door cock and their congeners; others are inclined to chastity, as the whole tribe of crows, 5for birds of this kind indulge but rarely in sexual intercourse.
Of marine animals, again, some live in the open seas, some near the shore, some on rocks.
Furthermore, some are combative under offence; others are provident for defence. Of the former kind are such as act as aggressors upon others or retaliate when subjected to ill usage, and of the latter kind are such as merely 10have some means of guarding themselves against attack.
Animals also differ from one another in regard to character in the following respects. Some are good-tempered, sluggish, and little prone to ferocity, as the ox; others are quick tempered, ferocious and unteachable, as the wild boar; some are intelligent and timid, as the stag and the hare; others are mean and treacherous, 15as the snake; others are noble and courageous and high-bred, as the lion; others are thorough-bred and wild and treacherous, as the wolf: for, by the way, an animal is highbred if it come from a noble stock, and an animal is thorough-bred if it does not deflect from its racial characteristics.
Further, some are crafty and mischievous, as the fox; some are spirited and affectionate 20and fawning, as the dog; others are easy-tempered and easily domesticated, as the elephant; others are cautious and watchful, as the goose; others are jealous and self-conceited, as the peacock. But of all animals man alone is capable of deliberation.
Many animals have memory, and are capable of instruction; but no other creature except man can recall the past at will.
With 25regard to the several genera of animals, particulars as to their habits of life and modes of existence will be discussed more fully by and by.
Book 1,Chapter 2 (488b29–489a7)
Πάντων δ' ἐστὶ τῶν ζῴων κοινὰ μόρια, ᾧ δέχεται τὴν
30 τροφὴν καὶ εἰς ὃ δέχεται· ταῦτα δ' ἐστὶ ταὐτὰ καὶ ἕτερα
κατὰ τοὺς εἰρημένους τρόπους, ἢ κατ' εἶδος ἢ καθ' ὑπεροχὴν ἢ
κατ' ἀναλογίαν ἢ τῇ θέσει διαφέροντα. Μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα
ἄλλα κοινὰ μόρια ἔχει τὰ πλεῖστα τῶν ζῴων πρὸς τούτοις,
ᾗ ἀφίησι τὸ περίττωμα τῆς τροφῆς [καὶ ᾗ λαμβάνει]· οὐ
Common to all animals are the organs whereby they take food and the organs where into they take it; and these are either identical with one another, or are diverse in the ways above specified: to wit, either identical in form, or varying 30in respect of excess or defect, or resembling one another analogically, or differing in position.
Furthermore, the great majority of animals have other organs besides these in common, whereby they discharge the residuum of their food: I say, the great majority, for this statement does not apply to all.
Furthermore, the great majority of animals have other organs besides these in common, whereby they discharge the residuum of their food: I say, the great majority, for this statement does not apply to all.
489a
1 γὰρ πᾶσιν ὑπάρχει τοῦτο. Καλεῖται δ' ᾗ μὲν λαμβάνει,
στόμα, εἰς ὃ δὲ δέχεται, κοιλία· τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν πολυώνυμόν
ἐστιν. Τοῦ δὲ περιττώματος ὄντος διττοῦ, ὅσα μὲν ἔχει δεκτικὰ
μόρια τοῦ ὑγροῦ περιττώματος, ἔχει καὶ τῆς ξηρᾶς τροφῆς,
5 ὅσα δὲ ταύτης, ἐκείνης οὐ πάντα. Διὸ ὅσα μὲν κύστιν ἔχει,
καὶ κοιλίαν ἔχει, ὅσα δὲ κοιλίαν ἔχει, οὐ πάντα κύστιν ἔχει.
Ὀνομάζεται γὰρ τὸ μὲν τῆς ὑγρᾶς περιττώσεως δεκτικὸν μόριον
κύστις, κοιλία δὲ τὸ τῆς ξηρᾶς.
1And, by the way, the organ whereby food is taken in is called the mouth, and the organ whereinto it is taken, the belly; the remainder of the alimentary system has a great variety of names.
Now the residuum of food is twofold in kind, wet and dry, and such creatures as have organs receptive of wet residuum are invariably found with organs receptive of 5dry residuum; but such as have organs receptive of dry residuum need not possess organs receptive of wet residuum. In other words, an animal has a bowel or intestine if it have a bladder; but an animal may have a bowel and be without a bladder. And, by the way, I may here remark that the organ receptive of wet residuum is termed 'bladder', and the organ receptive of dry residuum 'intestine or 'bowel'.
Now the residuum of food is twofold in kind, wet and dry, and such creatures as have organs receptive of wet residuum are invariably found with organs receptive of 5dry residuum; but such as have organs receptive of dry residuum need not possess organs receptive of wet residuum. In other words, an animal has a bowel or intestine if it have a bladder; but an animal may have a bowel and be without a bladder. And, by the way, I may here remark that the organ receptive of wet residuum is termed 'bladder', and the organ receptive of dry residuum 'intestine or 'bowel'.
Book 1,Chapter 3 (489a8–19)
Τῶν δὲ λοιπῶν πολλοῖς
ὑπάρχει ταῦτά τε τὰ μόρια καὶ ἔτι ᾗ τὸ σπέρμα ἀφιᾶσιν·
10 καὶ τούτων ἐν οἷς μὲν ὑπάρχει γένεσις ζῴων τὸ μὲν εἰς αὑτὸ
ἀφιέν, τὸ δ' εἰς ἕτερον. Καλεῖται δὲ τὸ μὲν εἰς αὑτὸ ἀφιὲν
θῆλυ, τὸ δ' εἰς τοῦτο ἄρρεν. Ἐν ἐνίοις δ' οὐκ ἔστι τὸ ἄρρεν καὶ
θῆλυ· ᾗ καὶ τῶν μορίων τῶν πρὸς τὴν δημιουργίαν ταύτην
διαφέρει τὸ εἶδος· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἔχει ὑστέραν, τὰ δὲ τὸ ἀνάλογον.
15 Ὅσα μὲν οὖν ἀναγκαιότατα μόρια τοῖς ζῴοις τὰ μὲν
πᾶσιν ἔχειν συμβέβηκε, τὰ δὲ τοῖς πλείστοις, ταῦτ' ἐστίν.
Πᾶσι δὲ τοῖς ζῴοις αἴσθησις μία ὑπάρχει κοινὴ μόνη
ἡ ἁφή, ὥστε καὶ ἐν ᾧ αὕτη μορίῳ γίνεσθαι πέφυκεν, ἀνώνυμόν
ἐστιν· τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ταὐτὸ τοῖς δὲ τὸ ἀνάλογόν ἐστιν.
Of animals otherwise, a great many have, 10besides the organs above-mentioned, an organ for excretion of the sperm: and of animals capable of generation one secretes into another, and the other into itself. The latter is termed 'female', and the former 'male'; but some animals have neither male nor female. Consequently, the organs connected with this function differ in form, for some animals have a womb and others an organ analogous thereto.
The above-mentioned organs, then, are the 15most indispensable parts of animals; and with some of them all animals without exception, and with others animals for the most part, must needs be provided.
One sense, and one alone, is common to all animals-the sense of touch. Consequently, there is no special name for the organ in which it has its seat; for in some groups of animals the organ is identical, in others it is only analogous.
The above-mentioned organs, then, are the 15most indispensable parts of animals; and with some of them all animals without exception, and with others animals for the most part, must needs be provided.
One sense, and one alone, is common to all animals-the sense of touch. Consequently, there is no special name for the organ in which it has its seat; for in some groups of animals the organ is identical, in others it is only analogous.
Book 1,Chapter 4 (489a20–33)
20 Ἔχει δὲ καὶ ὑγρότητα πᾶν ζῷον, ἧς στερισκόμενον ἢ φύσει
ἢ βίᾳ φθείρεται. Ἔτι ἐν ᾧ γίνεται, τοῦτο ἄλλο. Ἔστι δὲ
τοῦτο τοῖς μὲν αἷμα καὶ φλέψ, τοῖς δὲ τὸ ἀνάλογον τούτων·
ἔστι δ' ἀτελῆ ταῦτα, οἷον τὸ μὲν ἲς τὸ δ' ἰχώρ. Ἡ μὲν οὖν
ἁφὴ ἐν ὁμοιομερεῖ ἐγγίνεται μέρει, οἷον ἐν σαρκὶ ἢ τοιούτῳ
25 τινί, καὶ ὅλως ἐν τοῖς αἱματικοῖς, ὅσα ἔχει αἷμα· τοῖς δ' ἐν
τῷ ἀνάλογον, πᾶσι δ' ἐν τοῖς ὁμοιομερέσιν. Αἱ δὲ ποιητικαὶ
δυνάμεις ἐν τοῖς ἀνομοιομερέσιν, οἷον ἡ τῆς τροφῆς ἐργασία
ἐν στόματι καὶ ἡ τῆς κινήσεως τῆς κατὰ τόπον ἐν ποσὶν ἢ
πτέρυξιν ἢ τοῖς ἀνάλογον.
30 Πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τὰ μὲν ἔναιμα τυγχάνει ὄντα, οἷον ἄνθρωπος
καὶ ἵππος καὶ πάνθ' ὅσα ἢ ἄποδά ἐστι τέλεα ὄντα ἢ
δίποδα ἢ τετράποδα, τὰ δ' ἄναιμα, οἷον μέλιττα καὶ σφὴξ
καὶ τῶν θαλαττίων σηπία καὶ κάραβος καὶ πάνθ' ὅσα πλείους
πόδας ἔχει τεττάρων.
Every animal is supplied with moisture, and, if the 20animal be deprived of the same by natural causes or artificial means, death ensues: further, every animal has another part in which the moisture is contained. These parts are blood and vein, and in other animals there is something to correspond; but in these latter the parts are imperfect, being merely fibre and serum or lymph.
Touch has its seat in a part uniform and homogeneous, as in the flesh or something of the kind, and generally, with 25animals supplied with blood, in the parts charged with blood. In other animals it has its seat in parts analogous to the parts charged with blood; but in all cases it is seated in parts that in their texture are homogeneous.
The active faculties, on the contrary, are seated in the parts that are heterogeneous: as, for instance, the business of preparing the food is seated in the mouth, and the office of locomotion in the feet, the wings, or in 30organs to correspond.
Again, some animals are supplied with blood, as man, the horse, and all such animals as are, when full-grown, either destitute of feet, or two-footed, or four-footed; other animals are bloodless, such as the bee and the wasp, and, of marine animals, the cuttle-fish, the crawfish, and all such animals as have more than four feet.
Touch has its seat in a part uniform and homogeneous, as in the flesh or something of the kind, and generally, with 25animals supplied with blood, in the parts charged with blood. In other animals it has its seat in parts analogous to the parts charged with blood; but in all cases it is seated in parts that in their texture are homogeneous.
The active faculties, on the contrary, are seated in the parts that are heterogeneous: as, for instance, the business of preparing the food is seated in the mouth, and the office of locomotion in the feet, the wings, or in 30organs to correspond.
Again, some animals are supplied with blood, as man, the horse, and all such animals as are, when full-grown, either destitute of feet, or two-footed, or four-footed; other animals are bloodless, such as the bee and the wasp, and, of marine animals, the cuttle-fish, the crawfish, and all such animals as have more than four feet.
Book 1,Chapter 5 (489a34–490b6)
Καὶ τὰ μὲν ζῳοτόκα τὰ δ' ᾠοτόκα
35 τὰ δὲ σκωληκοτόκα, ζῳοτόκα μὲν οἷον ἄνθρωπος καὶ ἵππος
Again, some animals are viviparous, others oviparous, others vermiparous or 'grub-bearing'.
489b
1 καὶ φώκη καὶ τὰ ἄλλα ὅσα ἔχει τρίχας, καὶ τῶν ἐνύδρων
τὰ κητώδη, οἷον δελφίς, καὶ τὰ καλούμενα σελάχη. Τούτων
δὲ τὰ μὲν αὐλὸν ἔχει, βράγχια δ' οὐκ ἔχει, οἷον δελφὶς καὶ
φάλαινα (ἔχει δ' ὁ μὲν δελφὶς τὸν αὐλὸν διὰ τοῦ νώτου, ἡ δὲ
5 φάλαινα ἐν τῷ μετώπῳ), τὰ δ' ἀκάλυπτα βράγχια, οἷον
τὰ σελάχη, γαλεοί τε καὶ βάτοι. Καλεῖται δ' ᾠὸν μὲν τῶν
κυημάτων τῶν τελείων, ἐξ οὗ γίνεται τὸ γινόμενον ζῷον, ἐκ
μορίου τὴν ἀρχήν, τὸ δ' ἄλλο τροφὴ τῷ γινομένῳ ἐστίν· σκώληξ
δ' ἐστὶν ἐξ οὗ ὅλου ὅλον γίνεται τὸ ζῷον, διαρθρουμένου καὶ
10 αὐξανομένου τοῦ κυήματος. Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἐν αὑτοῖς ᾠοτοκεῖ τῶν
ζῳοτόκων, οἷον τὰ σελάχη, τὰ δὲ ζῳοτοκεῖ ἐν αὑτοῖς, οἷον
ἄνθρωπος καὶ ἵππος· εἰς δὲ τὸ φανερὸν τῶν μὲν τελεωθέντος
τοῦ κυήματος ζῷον ἐξέρχεται, τῶν δ' ᾠόν, τῶν δὲ σκώληξ.
Τῶν δ' ᾠῶν τὰ μὲν ὀστρακόδερμά ἐστι καὶ δίχροα, οἷον τὰ
15 τῶν ὀρνίθων, τὰ δὲ μαλακόδερμα καὶ μονόχροα, οἷον τὰ
τῶν σελαχῶν. Καὶ τῶν σκωλήκων οἱ μὲν εὐθὺς κινητικοὶ οἱ
δ' ἀκίνητοι. Ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων ἐν τοῖς περὶ γενέσεως δι'
ἀκριβείας ὕστερον λεκτέον.
Ἔτι δὲ τῶν ζῴων τὰ μὲν ἔχει πόδας τὰ δ' ἄποδα,
20 καὶ τῶν ἐχόντων τὰ μὲν δύο πόδας ἔχει, οἷον ἄνθρωπος
καὶ ὄρνις μόνα, τὰ δὲ τέτταρας, οἷον σαύρα καὶ κύων, τὰ
δὲ πλείους, οἷον σκολόπενδρα καὶ μέλιττα· πάντα δ' ἀρτίους
ἔχει πόδας. Τῶν δὲ νευστικῶν ὅσα ἄποδα, τὰ μὲν
πτερύγια ἔχει, ὥσπερ ἰχθύς, καὶ τούτων οἱ μὲν τέτταρα
25 πτερύγια, δύο μὲν ἄνω ἐν τοῖς πρανέσι, δύο δὲ κάτω ἐν
τοῖς ὑπτίοις, οἷον χρύσοφρυς καὶ λάβραξ, τὰ δὲ δύο μόνον,
ὅσα προμήκη καὶ λεῖα, οἷον ἔγχελυς καὶ γόγγρος·
τὰ δ' ὅλως οὐκ ἔχει, οἷον σμύραινα καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα χρῆται
τῇ θαλάττῃ ὥσπερ οἱ ὄφεις τῇ γῇ, καὶ ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ ὁμοίως
30 νέουσιν. Τῶν δὲ σελαχῶν ἔνια μὲν οὐκ ἔχει πτερύγια, οἷον
τὰ πλατέα καὶ κερκοφόρα, ὥσπερ βάτος καὶ τρυγών,
ἀλλ' αὐτοῖς νεῖ τοῖς πλάτεσιν· βάτραχος δ' ἔχει, καὶ ὅσα
τὸ πλάτος μὴ ἔχει ἀπολελεπτυσμένον. Ὅσα δὲ δοκεῖ πόδας
ἔχειν, καθάπερ καὶ τὰ μαλάκια, τούτοις νεῖ καὶ τοῖς
35 πτερυγίοις, καὶ θᾶττον ἐπὶ κύτος, οἷον σηπία καὶ τευθὶς καὶ
1Some are viviparous, such as man, the horse, the seal, and all other animals that are hair-coated, and, of marine animals, the cetaceans, as the dolphin, and the so-called Selachia. (Of these latter animals, some have a tubular air-passage and no gills, as the dolphin and the whale: the dolphin with the air-passage going through its back, the whale with 5the air-passage in its forehead; others have uncovered gills, as the Selachia, the sharks and rays.)
What we term an egg is a certain completed result of conception out of which the animal that is to be develops, and in such a way that in respect to its primitive germ it comes from part only of the egg, while the rest serves for food as the germ develops. A 'grub' on the other hand is a thing out of which in its entirety the animal in its 10entirety develops, by differentiation and growth of the embryo.
Of viviparous animals, some hatch eggs in their own interior, as creatures of the shark kind; others engender in their interior a live foetus, as man and the horse. When the result of conception is perfected, with some animals a living creature is brought forth, with others an egg is brought to light, with others a grub. Of the eggs, some have egg-shells and are of two different 15colours within, such as birds' eggs; others are soft-skinned and of uniform colour, as the eggs of animals of the shark kind. Of the grubs, some are from the first capable of movement, others are motionless. However, with regard to these phenomena we shall speak precisely hereafter when we come to treat of Generation.
Furthermore, some animals have feet and some are destitute thereof. Of such as have feet some animals have two, as is the 20case with men and birds, and with men and birds only; some have four, as the lizard and the dog; some have more, as the centipede and the bee; but allsoever that have feet have an even number of them.
Of swimming creatures that are destitute of feet, some have winglets or fins, as fishes: and of these some have four fins, two above on the back, two below on the belly, as the gilthead and the basse; some have two only,-to wit, such as are 25exceedingly long and smooth, as the eel and the conger; some have none at all, as the muraena, but use the sea just as snakes use dry ground-and by the way, snakes swim in water in just the same way. Of the shark-kind some have no fins, such as those that are flat and long-tailed, as the ray and the sting-ray, but these fishes swim actually by the undulatory motion of their flat bodies; the fishing frog, however, has fins, and so likewise have 30all such fishes as have not their flat surfaces thinned off to a sharp edge.
Of those swimming creatures that appear to have feet, as is the case with the molluscs, these creatures swim by the aid of their feet and their fins as well, and they swim most rapidly backwards in the direction of the trunk, as is the case with the cuttle-fish or sepia and the calamary; and, by the way, neither of these latter can walk as the poulpe or octopus can.
What we term an egg is a certain completed result of conception out of which the animal that is to be develops, and in such a way that in respect to its primitive germ it comes from part only of the egg, while the rest serves for food as the germ develops. A 'grub' on the other hand is a thing out of which in its entirety the animal in its 10entirety develops, by differentiation and growth of the embryo.
Of viviparous animals, some hatch eggs in their own interior, as creatures of the shark kind; others engender in their interior a live foetus, as man and the horse. When the result of conception is perfected, with some animals a living creature is brought forth, with others an egg is brought to light, with others a grub. Of the eggs, some have egg-shells and are of two different 15colours within, such as birds' eggs; others are soft-skinned and of uniform colour, as the eggs of animals of the shark kind. Of the grubs, some are from the first capable of movement, others are motionless. However, with regard to these phenomena we shall speak precisely hereafter when we come to treat of Generation.
Furthermore, some animals have feet and some are destitute thereof. Of such as have feet some animals have two, as is the 20case with men and birds, and with men and birds only; some have four, as the lizard and the dog; some have more, as the centipede and the bee; but allsoever that have feet have an even number of them.
Of swimming creatures that are destitute of feet, some have winglets or fins, as fishes: and of these some have four fins, two above on the back, two below on the belly, as the gilthead and the basse; some have two only,-to wit, such as are 25exceedingly long and smooth, as the eel and the conger; some have none at all, as the muraena, but use the sea just as snakes use dry ground-and by the way, snakes swim in water in just the same way. Of the shark-kind some have no fins, such as those that are flat and long-tailed, as the ray and the sting-ray, but these fishes swim actually by the undulatory motion of their flat bodies; the fishing frog, however, has fins, and so likewise have 30all such fishes as have not their flat surfaces thinned off to a sharp edge.
Of those swimming creatures that appear to have feet, as is the case with the molluscs, these creatures swim by the aid of their feet and their fins as well, and they swim most rapidly backwards in the direction of the trunk, as is the case with the cuttle-fish or sepia and the calamary; and, by the way, neither of these latter can walk as the poulpe or octopus can.
490a
1 πολύπους· βαδίζει δὲ τούτων οὐδέτερον, ὥσπερ πολύπους.
Τὰ δὲ σκληρόδερμα, οἷον κάραβος, τοῖς οὐραίοις νεῖ,
τάχιστα δ' ἐπὶ τὴν κέρκον τοῖς ἐν ἐκείνῃ πτερυγίοις· καὶ ὁ κορδύλος
τοῖς ποσὶ καὶ τῷ οὐραίῳ· ἔχει δ' ὅμοιον γλάνει τὸ
5 οὐραῖον, ὡς μικρὸν εἰκάσαι μεγάλῳ. Τῶν δὲ πτηνῶν τὰ μὲν
πτερωτά ἐστιν, οἷον ἀετὸς καὶ ἱέραξ, τὰ δὲ πτιλωτά, οἷον
μέλιττα καὶ μηλολόνθη, τὰ δὲ δερμόπτερα, οἷον ἀλώπηξ
καὶ νυκτερίς. Πτερωτὰ μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ὅσα ἔναιμα, καὶ δερμόπτερα
ὡσαύτως· πτιλωτὰ δ' ὅσα ἄναιμα, οἷον τὰ ἔντομα.
10 Ἔστι δὲ τὰ μὲν πτερωτὰ καὶ δερμόπτερα δίποδα πάντα ἢ
ἄποδα· λέγονται γὰρ εἶναί τινες ὄφεις τοιοῦτοι περὶ Αἰθιοπίαν.
Τὸ μὲν οὖν πτερωτὸν γένος τῶν ζῴων ὄρνις καλεῖται, τὰ
δὲ λοιπὰ δύο ἀνώνυμα ἑνὶ ὀνόματι. Τῶν δὲ πτηνῶν μὲν ἀναίμων
δὲ τὰ μὲν κολεόπτερά ἐστιν (ἔχει γὰρ ἐν ἐλύτρῳ τὰ
15 πτερά, οἷον αἱ μηλολόνθαι καὶ οἱ κάνθαροι), τὰ δ' ἀνέλυτρα,
καὶ τούτων τὰ μὲν δίπτερα τὰ δὲ τετράπτερα, τετράπτερα
μὲν ὅσα μέγεθος ἔχει ἢ ὅσα ὀπισθόκεντρά ἐστι, δίπτερα
δ' ὅσα ἢ μέγεθος μὴ ἔχει ἢ ἐμπροσθόκεντρά ἐστιν.
Τῶν δὲ κολεοπτέρων οὐδὲν ἔχει κέντρον. Τὰ δὲ δίπτερα
20 ἔμπροσθεν ἔχει τὰ κέντρα, οἷον μυῖα καὶ μύωψ καὶ οἶστρος
καὶ ἐμπίς. Πάντα δὲ τὰ ἄναιμα ἐλάττω τὰ μεγέθη ἐστὶ
τῶν ἐναίμων ζῴων· πλὴν ὀλίγα ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ μείζονα
ἄναιμά ἐστιν, οἷον τῶν μαλακίων ἔνια. Μέγιστα δὲ γίνεται
ταῦτα τὰ γένη αὐτῶν ἐν τοῖς ἀλεεινοτάτοις, καὶ ἐν τῇ
25 θαλάττῃ μᾶλλον ἢ ἐν τῇ γῇ καὶ ἐν τοῖς γλυκέσιν ὕδασιν.
Κινεῖται δὲ τὰ κινούμενα πάντα τέτταρσι σημείοις ἢ πλείοσι,
τὰ μὲν ἔναιμα τέτταρσι μόνον, οἷον ἄνθρωπος μὲν χερσὶ
δυσὶ καὶ ποσὶ δυσίν, ὄρνις δὲ πτέρυξι δυσὶ καὶ ποσὶ δυσί,
τὰ δὲ τετράποδα καὶ ἰχθύες τὰ μὲν τέτταρσι ποσίν, οἱ δὲ
30 τέτταρσι πτερυγίοις. Ὅσα δὲ δύο ἔχει πτερύγια ἢ ὅλως μή,
οἷον ὄφις, τέτταρσι σημείοις οὐδὲν ἧττον· αἱ γὰρ καμπαὶ
τέτταρες, ἢ δύο σὺν τοῖς πτερυγίοις. Ὅσα δ' ἄναιμα ὄντα
πλείους πόδας ἔχει, εἴτε πτηνὰ εἴτε πεζά, σημείοις κινεῖται
πλείοσιν, οἷον τὸ καλούμενον ζῷον ἐφήμερον τέτταρσι καὶ
1The hard-skinned or crustaceous animals, like the crawfish, swim by the instrumentality of their tail-parts; and they swim most rapidly tail foremost, by the aid of the fins developed upon that member. The newt swims by means of its feet and tail; and its tail resembles that of the sheatfish, to compare 5little with great.
Of animals that can fly some are furnished with feathered wings, as the eagle and the hawk; some are furnished with membranous wings, as the bee and the cockchafer; others are furnished with leathern wings, as the flying fox and the bat. All flying creatures possessed of blood have feathered wings or leathern wings; the bloodless creatures have membranous wings, 10as insects. The creatures that have feathered wings or leathern wings have either two feet or no feet at all: for there are said to be certain flying serpents in Ethiopia that are destitute of feet.
Creatures that have feathered wings are classed as a genus under the name of 'bird'; the other two genera, the leathern-winged and membrane-winged, are as yet without a generic 15title.
Of creatures that can fly and are bloodless some are coleopterous or sheath-winged, for they have their wings in a sheath or shard, like the cockchafer and the dung-beetle; others are sheathless, and of these latter some are dipterous and some tetrapterous: tetrapterous, such as are comparatively large or have their stings in the tail, dipterous, such as are comparatively small 20or have their stings in front. The coleoptera are, without exception, devoid of stings; the diptera have the sting in front, as the fly, the horsefly, the gadfly, and the gnat.
Bloodless animals as a general rule are inferior in point of size to blooded animals; though, by the way, there are found in the sea some few bloodless creatures of abnormal size, as in the case of certain 25molluscs. And of these bloodless genera, those are the largest that dwell in milder climates, and those that inhabit the sea are larger than those living on dry land or in fresh water.
All creatures that are capable of motion move with four or more points of motion; the blooded animals with four only: as, for instance, man with two hands and two feet, birds with two wings and 30two feet, quadrupeds and fishes severally with four feet and four fins. Creatures that have two winglets or fins, or that have none at all like serpents, move all the same with not less than four points of motion; for there are four bends in their bodies as they move, or two bends together with their fins.
Of animals that can fly some are furnished with feathered wings, as the eagle and the hawk; some are furnished with membranous wings, as the bee and the cockchafer; others are furnished with leathern wings, as the flying fox and the bat. All flying creatures possessed of blood have feathered wings or leathern wings; the bloodless creatures have membranous wings, 10as insects. The creatures that have feathered wings or leathern wings have either two feet or no feet at all: for there are said to be certain flying serpents in Ethiopia that are destitute of feet.
Creatures that have feathered wings are classed as a genus under the name of 'bird'; the other two genera, the leathern-winged and membrane-winged, are as yet without a generic 15title.
Of creatures that can fly and are bloodless some are coleopterous or sheath-winged, for they have their wings in a sheath or shard, like the cockchafer and the dung-beetle; others are sheathless, and of these latter some are dipterous and some tetrapterous: tetrapterous, such as are comparatively large or have their stings in the tail, dipterous, such as are comparatively small 20or have their stings in front. The coleoptera are, without exception, devoid of stings; the diptera have the sting in front, as the fly, the horsefly, the gadfly, and the gnat.
Bloodless animals as a general rule are inferior in point of size to blooded animals; though, by the way, there are found in the sea some few bloodless creatures of abnormal size, as in the case of certain 25molluscs. And of these bloodless genera, those are the largest that dwell in milder climates, and those that inhabit the sea are larger than those living on dry land or in fresh water.
All creatures that are capable of motion move with four or more points of motion; the blooded animals with four only: as, for instance, man with two hands and two feet, birds with two wings and 30two feet, quadrupeds and fishes severally with four feet and four fins. Creatures that have two winglets or fins, or that have none at all like serpents, move all the same with not less than four points of motion; for there are four bends in their bodies as they move, or two bends together with their fins.
490b
1 ποσὶ καὶ πτεροῖς· τούτῳ γὰρ οὐ μόνον κατὰ τὸν βίον
συμβαίνει τὸ ἴδιον, ὅθεν καὶ τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν ἔχει, ἀλλ' ὅτι καὶ
πτηνόν ἐστι τετράπουν ὄν. Πάντα δὲ κινεῖται ὁμοίως, τὰ τετράποδα
καὶ πολύποδα· κατὰ διάμετρον γὰρ κινεῖται. Τὰ
5 μὲν οὖν ἄλλα ζῷα δύο τοὺς ἡγεμόνας ἔχει πόδας, ὁ δὲ
καρκίνος μόνος τῶν ζῴων τέτταρας.
1Bloodless and many footed animals, whether furnished with wings or feet, move with more than four points of motion; as, for instance, the dayfly moves with four feet and four wings: and, I may observe in passing, this creature is exceptional not only in regard to the duration of its existence, whence it receives its 5name, but also because though a quadruped it has wings also.
All animals move alike, four-footed and many-footed; in other words, they all move cross-corner-wise. And animals in general have two feet in advance; the crab alone has four.
All animals move alike, four-footed and many-footed; in other words, they all move cross-corner-wise. And animals in general have two feet in advance; the crab alone has four.
Book 1,Chapter 6 (490b7–491a26)
Γένη δὲ μέγιστα τῶν ζῴων, εἰς ἃ διῄρηται τἆλλα
ζῷα, τάδ' ἐστίν, ἓν μὲν ὀρνίθων, ἓν δ' ἰχθύων, ἄλλο δὲ
κῆτος. Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν πάντα ἔναιμά ἐστιν. Ἄλλο δὲ γένος
10 ἐστὶ τὸ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων, ὃ καλεῖται ὄστρεον· ἄλλο τὸ τῶν
μαλακοστράκων, ἀνώνυμον ἑνὶ ὀνόματι, οἷον κάραβοι καὶ
γένη τινὰ καρκίνων καὶ ἀστακῶν· ἄλλο τὸ τῶν μαλακίων,
οἷον τευθίδες τε καὶ τεῦθοι καὶ σηπίαι· ἕτερον τὸ τῶν ἐντόμων.
Ταῦτα δὲ πάντα μέν ἐστιν ἄναιμα, ὅσα δὲ πόδας
15 ἔχει, πολύποδα· τῶν δ' ἐντόμων ἔνια καὶ πτηνά ἐστιν. Τῶν
δὲ λοιπῶν ζῴων οὐκέτι τὰ γένη μεγάλα· οὐ γὰρ περιέχει
πολλὰ εἴδη ἓν εἶδος, ἀλλὰ τὸ μέν ἐστιν ἁπλοῦν αὐτὸ οὐκ
ἔχον διαφορὰν τὸ εἶδος, οἷον ἄνθρωπος, τὰ δ' ἔχει μέν,
ἀλλ' ἀνώνυμα τὰ εἴδη. Ἔστι γὰρ τὰ τετράποδα καὶ μὴ
20 πτερωτὰ ἔναιμα μὲν πάντα, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν ζῳοτόκα τὰ
δ' ᾠοτόκα αὐτῶν. Ὅσα μὲν οὖν ζῳοτόκα, οὐ πάντα τρίχας
ἔχει, ὅσα δ' ᾠοτόκα, φολίδας· ἔστι δ' ἡ φολὶς ὅμοιον
χώρᾳ λεπίδος. Ἄπουν δὲ φύσει ἐστὶν ἔναιμον πεζὸν τὸ τῶν
ὄφεων γένος· ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο φολιδωτόν. Ἀλλ' οἱ μὲν ἄλλοι
25 ᾠοτοκοῦσιν ὄφεις, ἡ δ' ἔχιδνα μόνον ζῳοτοκεῖ. Τὰ μὲν γὰρ
ζῳοτοκοῦντα οὐ πάντα τρίχας ἔχει· καὶ γὰρ τῶν ἰχθύων
τινὲς ζῳοτοκοῦσιν· ὅσα μέντοι ἔχει τρίχας, ἅπαντα ζῳοτοκεῖ.
Τριχῶν γάρ τι εἶδος θετέον καὶ τὰς ἀκανθώδεις τρίχας,
οἵας οἱ χερσαῖοι ἔχουσιν ἐχῖνοι καὶ οἱ ὕστριχες· τριχὸς γὰρ
30 χρείαν παρέχουσιν, ἀλλ' οὐ ποδῶν, ὥσπερ αἱ τῶν θαλαττίων.
Τοῦ δὲ γένους τοῦ τῶν τετραπόδων ζῴων καὶ ζῳοτόκων εἴδη
μέν ἐστι πολλά, ἀνώνυμα δέ· ἀλλὰ καθ' ἕκαστον αὐτῶν
ὡς εἰπεῖν, ὥσπερ ἄνθρωπος εἴρηται, λέων, ἔλαφος, ἵππος,
κύων καὶ τἆλλα τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον, ἐπεί ἐστιν ἕν τι γένος μόνον
Very extensive genera of animals, into which other subdivisions fall, are the following: one, of birds; one, of fishes; and another, of cetaceans. Now all these 10creatures are blooded.
There is another genus of the hard-shell kind, which is called oyster; another of the soft-shell kind, not as yet designated by a single term, such as the spiny crawfish and the various kinds of crabs and lobsters; and another of molluscs, as the two kinds of calamary and the cuttle-fish; that of insects is different. All these latter creatures are bloodless, and such of 15them as have feet have a goodly number of them; and of the insects some have wings as well as feet.
Of the other animals the genera are not extensive. For in them one species does not comprehend many species; but in one case, as man, the species is simple, admitting of no differentiation, while other cases admit of differentiation, but the forms lack particular designations.
So, for instance, 20creatures that are qudapedal and unprovided with wings are blooded without exception, but some of them are viviparous, and some oviparous. Such as are viviparous are hair-coated, and such as are oviparous are covered with a kind of tessellated hard substance; and the tessellated bits of this substance are, as it were, similar in regard to position to a scale.
An animal that is blooded and capable 25of movement on dry land, but is naturally unprovided with feet, belongs to the serpent genus; and animals of this genus are coated with the tessellated horny substance. Serpents in general are oviparous; the adder, an exceptional case, is viviparous: for not all viviparous animals are hair-coated, and some fishes also are viviparous.
All animals, however, that are hair-coated are viviparous. 30For, by the way, one must regard as a kind of hair such prickly hairs as hedgehogs and porcupines carry; for these spines perform the office of hair, and not of feet as is the case with similar parts of sea-urchins.
In the genus that combines all viviparous quadrupeds are many species, but under no common appellation.
There is another genus of the hard-shell kind, which is called oyster; another of the soft-shell kind, not as yet designated by a single term, such as the spiny crawfish and the various kinds of crabs and lobsters; and another of molluscs, as the two kinds of calamary and the cuttle-fish; that of insects is different. All these latter creatures are bloodless, and such of 15them as have feet have a goodly number of them; and of the insects some have wings as well as feet.
Of the other animals the genera are not extensive. For in them one species does not comprehend many species; but in one case, as man, the species is simple, admitting of no differentiation, while other cases admit of differentiation, but the forms lack particular designations.
So, for instance, 20creatures that are qudapedal and unprovided with wings are blooded without exception, but some of them are viviparous, and some oviparous. Such as are viviparous are hair-coated, and such as are oviparous are covered with a kind of tessellated hard substance; and the tessellated bits of this substance are, as it were, similar in regard to position to a scale.
An animal that is blooded and capable 25of movement on dry land, but is naturally unprovided with feet, belongs to the serpent genus; and animals of this genus are coated with the tessellated horny substance. Serpents in general are oviparous; the adder, an exceptional case, is viviparous: for not all viviparous animals are hair-coated, and some fishes also are viviparous.
All animals, however, that are hair-coated are viviparous. 30For, by the way, one must regard as a kind of hair such prickly hairs as hedgehogs and porcupines carry; for these spines perform the office of hair, and not of feet as is the case with similar parts of sea-urchins.
In the genus that combines all viviparous quadrupeds are many species, but under no common appellation.
491a
1 ἐπὶ τοῖς λοφούροις καλουμένοις, οἷον ἵππῳ καὶ ὄνῳ καὶ
ὀρεῖ καὶ γίννῳ [καὶ ἴννῳ] καὶ ταῖς ἐν Συρίᾳ καλουμέναις
ἡμιόνοις, αἳ καλοῦνται ἡμίονοι δι' ὁμοιότητα, οὐκ οὖσαι ἁπλῶς
τὸ αὐτὸ εἶδος· καὶ γὰρ ὀχεύονται καὶ γεννῶνται ἐξ ἀλλήλων. Διὸ
5 καὶ χωρὶς λαμβάνοντας ἀνάγκη θεωρεῖν ἑκάστου τὴν φύσιν
αὐτῶν.
Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον εἴρηται νῦν ὡς ἐν
τύπῳ, γεύματος χάριν περὶ ὅσων καὶ ὅσα θεωρητέον· δι'
ἀκριβείας δ' ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν, ἵνα πρῶτον τὰς ὑπαρχούσας
10 διαφορὰς καὶ τὰ συρβεβηκότα πᾶσι λαμβάνωμεν. Μετὰ δὲ
τοῦτο τὰς αἰτίας τούτων πειρατέον εὑρεῖν. Οὕτω γὰρ κατὰ φύσιν
ἐστὶ ποιεῖσθαι τὴν μέθοδον, ὑπαρχούσης τῆς ἱστορίας τῆς
περὶ ἕκαστον· περὶ ὧν τε γὰρ καὶ ἐξ ὧν εἶναι δεῖ τὴν ἀπόδειξιν,
ἐκ τούτων γίνεται φανερόν. Ληπτέον δὲ πρῶτον τὰ
15 μέρη τῶν ζῴων ἐξ ὧν συνέστηκεν. Κατὰ γὰρ ταῦτα μάλιστα
καὶ πρῶτα διαφέρει καὶ τὰ ὅλα, ἢ τῷ τὰ μὲν ἔχειν τὰ
δὲ μὴ ἔχειν, ἢ τῇ θέσει καὶ τῇ τάξει, ἢ καὶ κατὰ τὰς
εἰρημένας πρότερον διαφοράς, εἴδει καὶ ὑπεροχῇ καὶ ἀναλογίᾳ
καὶ τῶν παθημάτων ἐναντιότητι. Πρῶτον δὲ τὰ τοῦ
20 ἀνθρώπου μέρη ληπτέον· ὥσπερ γὰρ τὰ νομίσματα πρὸς
τὸ αὑτοῖς ἕκαστοι γνωριμώτατον δοκιμάζουσιν, οὕτω δὴ καὶ
ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις· ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος τῶν ζῴων γνωριμώτατον ἡμῖν
ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἐστίν. Τῇ μὲν οὖν αἰσθήσει οὐκ ἄδηλα τὰ μόρια·
ὅμως δ' ἕνεκεν τοῦ μὴ παραλιπεῖν τε τὸ ἐφεξῆς καὶ τοῦ
25 λόγον ἔχειν μετὰ τῆς αἰσθήσεως, λεκτέον τὰ μέρη πρῶτον
μὲν τὰ ὀργανικά, εἶτα τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ.
1They are only named as it were one by one, as we say man, lion, stag, horse, dog, and so on; though, by the way, there is a sort of genus that embraces all creatures that have bushy manes and bushy tails, such as the horse, the ass, the mule, the jennet, and the animals that are called Hemioni in Syria,-from their externally resembling mules, though 5they are not strictly of the same species. And that they are not so is proved by the fact that they mate with and breed from one another. For all these reasons, we must take animals species by species, and discuss their peculiarities severally' These preceding statements, then, have been put forward thus in a general way, as a kind of foretaste of the number of subjects and of the properties that we have to consider in order that 10we may first get a clear notion of distinctive character and common properties. By and by we shall discuss these matters with greater minuteness.
After this we shall pass on to the discussion of causes. For to do this when the investigation of the details is complete is the proper and natural method, and that whereby the subjects and the premisses of our argument will afterwards be rendered plain.
In the first place we must look to 15the constituent parts of animals. For it is in a way relative to these parts, first and foremost, that animals in their entirety differ from one another: either in the fact that some have this or that, while they have not that or this; or by peculiarities of position or of arrangement; or by the differences that have been previously mentioned, depending upon diversity of form, or excess or defect in this or that particular, on analogy, 20or on contrasts of the accidental qualities.
To begin with, we must take into consideration the parts of Man. For, just as each nation is wont to reckon by that monetary standard with which it is most familiar, so must we do in other matters. And, of course, man is the animal with which we are all of us the most familiar.
Now the parts are obvious enough to physical perception. However, with the view of observing due order and 25sequence and of combining rational notions with physical perception, we shall proceed to enumerate the parts: firstly, the organic, and afterwards the simple or non-composite.
After this we shall pass on to the discussion of causes. For to do this when the investigation of the details is complete is the proper and natural method, and that whereby the subjects and the premisses of our argument will afterwards be rendered plain.
In the first place we must look to 15the constituent parts of animals. For it is in a way relative to these parts, first and foremost, that animals in their entirety differ from one another: either in the fact that some have this or that, while they have not that or this; or by peculiarities of position or of arrangement; or by the differences that have been previously mentioned, depending upon diversity of form, or excess or defect in this or that particular, on analogy, 20or on contrasts of the accidental qualities.
To begin with, we must take into consideration the parts of Man. For, just as each nation is wont to reckon by that monetary standard with which it is most familiar, so must we do in other matters. And, of course, man is the animal with which we are all of us the most familiar.
Now the parts are obvious enough to physical perception. However, with the view of observing due order and 25sequence and of combining rational notions with physical perception, we shall proceed to enumerate the parts: firstly, the organic, and afterwards the simple or non-composite.
Book 1,Chapter 7 (491a27–491b8)
Μέγιστα μὲν οὖν ἐστι τάδε τῶν μερῶν εἰς ἃ διαιρεῖται
τὸ σῶμα τὸ σύνολον, κεφαλή, αὐχήν, θώραξ, βραχίονες
δύο, σκέλη δύο (τὸ ἀπ' αὐχένος μέχρι αἰδοίων κύτος,
30 ὃ καλεῖται θώραξ). Κεφαλῆς μὲν οὖν μέρη τὸ μὲν τριχωτὸν
κρανίον καλεῖται. Τούτου δὲ μέρη τὸ μὲν πρόσθιον βρέγμα,
ὑστερογενές (τελευταῖον γὰρ τῶν ἐν τῷ σώματι πήγνυται
ὀστῶν), τὸ δ' ὀπίσθιον ἰνίον, μέσον δ' ἰνίου καὶ βρέγματος
κορυφή. Ὑπὸ μὲν οὖν τὸ βρέγμα ὁ ἐγκέφαλός ἐστιν, τὸ δ'
The chief parts into which the body as a whole is subdivided, are the head, the neck, the trunk (extending from the neck to the privy parts), which is called the thorax, two arms and two legs.
Of the parts of which the head is composed the hair-covered portion is 30called the 'skull'. The front portion of it is termed 'bregma' or 'sinciput', developed after birth-for it is the last of all the bones in the body to acquire solidity,-the hinder part is termed the 'occiput', and the part intervening between the sinciput and the occiput is the 'crown'. The brain lies underneath the sinciput; the occiput is hollow.
Of the parts of which the head is composed the hair-covered portion is 30called the 'skull'. The front portion of it is termed 'bregma' or 'sinciput', developed after birth-for it is the last of all the bones in the body to acquire solidity,-the hinder part is termed the 'occiput', and the part intervening between the sinciput and the occiput is the 'crown'. The brain lies underneath the sinciput; the occiput is hollow.
491b
1 ἰνίον κενόν. Ἔστι δὲ τὸ κρανίον ἅπαν ἀραιὸν ὀστοῦν,
στρογγύλον, ἀσάρκῳ δέρματι περιεχόμενον. Ἔχει δὲ ῥαφὰς τῶν
μὲν γυναικῶν μίαν κύκλῳ, τῶν δ' ἀνδρῶν τρεῖς εἰς ἓν συναπτούσας
ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ· ἤδη δ' ὠμμένη ἐστὶ κεφαλὴ ἀνδρὸς
5 οὐδεμίαν ἔχουσα ῥαφήν. Τοῦ δὲ κρανίου κορυφὴ καλεῖται τὸ
μέσον λίσσωμα τῶν τριχῶν. Τοῦτο δ' ἐνίοις διπλοῦν ἐστιν· γίνονται
γάρ τινες δικόροφοι, οὐ τῷ ὀστῷ ἀλλὰ τῇ τῶν τριχῶν
λισσώσει.
1The skull consists entirely of thin bone, rounded in shape, and contained within a wrapper of fleshless skin.
The skull has sutures: one, of circular form, in the case of women; in the case of men, as a general rule, three meeting at a point. Instances have been known of a man's skull devoid of suture altogether. In the skull the 5middle line, where the hair parts, is called the crown or vertex. In some cases the parting is double; that is to say, some men are double crowned, not in regard to the bony skull, but in consequence of the double fall or set of the hair.
The skull has sutures: one, of circular form, in the case of women; in the case of men, as a general rule, three meeting at a point. Instances have been known of a man's skull devoid of suture altogether. In the skull the 5middle line, where the hair parts, is called the crown or vertex. In some cases the parting is double; that is to say, some men are double crowned, not in regard to the bony skull, but in consequence of the double fall or set of the hair.
Book 1,Chapter 8 (491b9–13)
Τὸ δ' ὑπὸ τὸ κρανίον ὀνομάζεται πρόσωπον ἐπὶ μόνου
10 τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ἀνθρώπου· ἰχθύος γὰρ καὶ βοὸς οὐ λέγεται
πρόσωπον. Προσώπου δὲ τὸ μὲν ὑπὸ τὸ βρέγμα μεταξὺ
τῶν ὀμμάτων μέτωπον. Τοῦτο δ' οἷς μὲν μέγα, βραδύτεροι,
οἷς δὲ μικρόν, εὐκίνητοι· καὶ οἷς μὲν πλατύ, ἐκστατικοί,
οἷς δὲ περιφερές, θυμικοί.
The part that lies under the skull is called the 'face': but in the case of man only, for the term is not applied to a fish or to an ox. In the face the part below the sinciput and 10between the eyes is termed the forehead. When men have large foreheads, they are slow to move; when they have small ones, they are fickle; when they have broad ones, they are apt to be distraught; when they have foreheads rounded or bulging out, they are quick-tempered.
Book 1,Chapter 9 (491b14–33)
Ὑπὸ δὲ τῷ μετώπῳ ὀφρύες διφυεῖς·
15 ὧν αἱ μὲν εὐθεῖαι μαλακοῦ ἤθους σημεῖον, αἱ δὲ
πρὸς τὴν ῥῖνα τὴν καμπυλότητ' ἔχουσαι στρυφνοῦ, αἱ δὲ πρὸς
τοὺς κροτάφους μωκοῦ καὶ εἴρωνος, αἱ δὲ κατεσπασμέναι
φθόνου. Ὑφ' αἷς ὀφθαλμοί. Οὗτοι κατὰ φύσιν δύο. Τούτων
μέρη ἑκατέρου βλέφαρον τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω. Τούτου τρίχες
20 αἱ ἔσχαται βλεφαρίδες. Τὸ δ' ἐντὸς τοῦ ὀφθαλμοῦ,
τὸ μὲν ὑγρόν, ᾧ βλέπει, κόρη, τὸ δὲ περὶ τοῦτο μέλαν, τὸ
δ' ἐκτὸς τούτου λευκόν. Κοινὸν δὲ τῆς βλεφαρίδος μέρος τῆς
ἄνω καὶ κάτω κανθοὶ δύο, ὁ μὲν πρὸς τῇ ῥινί, ὁ δὲ πρὸς
τοῖς κροτάφοις· οἳ ἂν μὲν ὦσι μακροί, κακοηθείας σημεῖον,
25 ἂν δ' οἷον οἱ ἰκτῖνες κρεῶδες ἔχωσι τὸ πρὸς τῷ μυκτῆρι,
πονηρίας. Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἄλλα γένη πάντα τῶν ζῴων πλὴν τῶν
ὀστρακοδέρμων καὶ εἴ τι ἄλλο ἀτελές, ἔχει ὀφθαλμούς· τὰ
δὲ ζῳοτόκα πάντα πλὴν ἀσπάλακος. Τοῦτον δὲ τρόπον μέν
τιν' ἔχειν ἂν θείη τις, ὅλως δ' οὐκ ἔχειν. Ὅλως μὲν γὰρ οὔθ'
30 ὁρᾷ οὔτ' ἔχει εἰς τὸ φανερὸν δήλους ὀφθαλμούς· ἀφαιρεθέντος
δὲ τοῦ δέρματος ἔχει τήν τε χώραν τῶν ὀμμάτων καὶ τῶν
ὀφθαλμῶν τὰ μέλανα κατὰ τὸν τόπον καὶ τὴν χώραν τὴν
φύσει τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς ὑπάρχουσαν ἐν τῷ ἐκτός, ὡς ἐν τῇ
γενέσει πηρουμένων καὶ ἐπιφυομένου τοῦ δέρματος.
Underneath the forehead are two eyebrows. Straight eyebrows are a sign of softness of disposition; such as curve in towards the nose, of harshness; 15such as curve out towards the temples, of humour and dissimulation; such as are drawn in towards one another, of jealousy.
Under the eyebrows come the eyes. These are naturally two in number. Each of them has an upper and a lower eyelid, and the hairs on the edges of these are termed 'eyelashes'. The central part of the eye includes the moist part whereby vision is effected, termed the 'pupil', and the part surrounding 20it called the 'black'; the part outside this is the 'white'. A part common to the upper and lower eyelid is a pair of nicks or corners, one in the direction of the nose, and the other in the direction of the temples. When these are long they are a sign of bad disposition; if the side toward the nostril be fleshy and comb-like, they are a sign of dishonesty.
All animals, as a general rule, are provided with eyes, 25excepting the ostracoderms and other imperfect creatures; at all events, all viviparous animals have eyes, with the exception of the mole. And yet one might assert that, though the mole has not eyes in the full sense, yet it has eyes in a kind of a way. For in point of absolute fact it cannot see, and has no eyes visible externally; but when the outer skin is removed, it is found to have the place where eyes are 30usually situated, and the black parts of the eyes rightly situated, and all the place that is usually devoted on the outside to eyes: showing that the parts are stunted in development, and the skin allowed to grow over.
Under the eyebrows come the eyes. These are naturally two in number. Each of them has an upper and a lower eyelid, and the hairs on the edges of these are termed 'eyelashes'. The central part of the eye includes the moist part whereby vision is effected, termed the 'pupil', and the part surrounding 20it called the 'black'; the part outside this is the 'white'. A part common to the upper and lower eyelid is a pair of nicks or corners, one in the direction of the nose, and the other in the direction of the temples. When these are long they are a sign of bad disposition; if the side toward the nostril be fleshy and comb-like, they are a sign of dishonesty.
All animals, as a general rule, are provided with eyes, 25excepting the ostracoderms and other imperfect creatures; at all events, all viviparous animals have eyes, with the exception of the mole. And yet one might assert that, though the mole has not eyes in the full sense, yet it has eyes in a kind of a way. For in point of absolute fact it cannot see, and has no eyes visible externally; but when the outer skin is removed, it is found to have the place where eyes are 30usually situated, and the black parts of the eyes rightly situated, and all the place that is usually devoted on the outside to eyes: showing that the parts are stunted in development, and the skin allowed to grow over.
Book 1,Chapter 10 (491b34–492a12)
Ὀφθαλμοῦ
Of the eye the white is pretty much the same in all creatures; but what is called the black differs in various animals.
492a
1 δὲ τὸ μὲν λευκὸν ὅμοιον ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ πᾶσιν, τὸ δὲ καλούμενον
μέλαν διαφέρει· τοῖς μὲν γάρ ἐστι μέλαν, τοῖς δὲ
σφόδρα γλαυκόν, τοῖς δὲ χαροπόν, ἐνίοις δὲ αἰγωπόν· τοῦτο
ἤθους βελτίστου σημεῖον καὶ πρὸς ὀξύτητα ὄψεως κράτιστον.
5 Μόνον δ' ἢ μάλιστα τῶν ζῴων ἄνθρωπος πολύχρους τὰ ὄμματά
ἐστιν· τῶν δ' ἄλλων ἓν εἶδος· ἵπποι δὲ γίνονται γλαυκοὶ
ἔνιοι. Τῶν δ' ὀφθαλμῶν οἱ μὲν μεγάλοι, οἱ δὲ μικροί,
οἱ δὲ μέσοι· οἱ μέσοι βέλτιστοι. Καὶ ἢ ἐκτὸς σφόδρα ἢ ἐντὸς
ἢ μέσως· τούτων οἱ ἐντὸς μάλιστα ὀξυωπέστατοι ἐπὶ παντὸς
10 ζῴου, τὸ δὲ μέσον ἤθους βελτίστου σημεῖον. Καὶ ἢ σκαρδαμυκτικοὶ
ἢ ἀτενεῖς ἢ μέσοι· βελτίστου δ' ἤθους οἱ μέσοι,
ἐκείνων δ' ὁ μὲν ἀναιδὴς ὁ δ' ἀβέβαιος.
1Some have the rim black, some distinctly blue, some greyish-blue, some greenish; and this last colour is the sign of an excellent disposition, and is particularly well adapted for sharpness of vision. Man is the only, or nearly the only, creature, that has eyes of diverse colours. Animals, as a rule, have eyes of one colour 5only. Some horses have blue eyes.
Of eyes, some are large, some small, some medium-sized; of these, the medium-sized are the best. Moreover, eyes sometimes protrude, sometimes recede, sometimes are neither protruding nor receding. Of these, the receding eye is in all animals the most acute; but the last kind are the sign of the best disposition. Again, eyes are sometimes inclined to wink under observation, 10sometimes to remain open and staring, and sometimes are disposed neither to wink nor stare. The last kind are the sign of the best nature, and of the others, the latter kind indicates impudence, and the former indecision.
Of eyes, some are large, some small, some medium-sized; of these, the medium-sized are the best. Moreover, eyes sometimes protrude, sometimes recede, sometimes are neither protruding nor receding. Of these, the receding eye is in all animals the most acute; but the last kind are the sign of the best disposition. Again, eyes are sometimes inclined to wink under observation, 10sometimes to remain open and staring, and sometimes are disposed neither to wink nor stare. The last kind are the sign of the best nature, and of the others, the latter kind indicates impudence, and the former indecision.
Book 1,Chapter 11 (492a13–493a4)
Ἔτι δὲ κεφαλῆς μόριον, δι' οὗ ἀκούει, ἄπνουν, τὸ οὖς·
Ἀλκμαίων γὰρ οὐκ ἀληθῆ λέγει, φάμενος ἀναπνεῖν τὰς αἶγας
15 κατὰ τὰ ὦτα. Ὠτὸς δὲ μέρος τὸ μὲν ἀνώνυμον, τὸ δὲ
λοβός. Ὅλον δ' ἐκ χόνδρου καὶ σαρκὸς σύγκειται. Εἴσω δὲ
τὴν μὲν φύσιν ἔχει οἷον οἱ στρόμβοι, τὸ δ' ἔσχατον ὀστοῦν
ὅμοιον τῷ ὠτί, εἰς ὃ ὥσπερ ἀγγεῖον ἔσχατον ἀφικνεῖται ὁ
ψόφος. Τοῦτο δ' εἰς μὲν τὸν ἐγκέφαλον οὐκ ἔχει πόρον, εἰς
20 δὲ τὸν τοῦ στόματος οὐρανόν· καὶ ἐκ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου φλὲψ
τείνει εἰς αὐτό. Περαίνουσι δὲ καὶ οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ εἰς τὸν ἐγκέφαλον,
καὶ κεῖται ἐπὶ φλεβίου ἑκάτερος. Ἀκίνητον δὲ τὸ οὖς ἄνθρωπος
ἔχει μόνος τῶν ἐχόντων τοῦτο τὸ μόριον. Τῶν γὰρ
ἐχόντων ἀκοὴν τὰ μὲν ἔχει ὦτα, τὰ δ' οὐκ ἔχει, ἀλλὰ τὸν
25 πόρον φανερόν, οἷον ὅσα πτερωτὰ ἢ φολιδωτά. Ὅσα δὲ ζῳοτοκεῖ,
ἔξω φώκης καὶ δελφῖνος καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅσα οὕτω
κητώδη, πάντα ἔχει ὦτα· ζῳοτοκεῖ γὰρ καὶ τὰ σελάχη·
ἀλλὰ μόνον ἄνθρωπος οὐ κινεῖ. Ἡ μὲν οὖν φώκη πόρους ἔχει
φανεροὺς ᾗ ἀκούει· ὁ δὲ δελφὶς ἀκούει μέν, οὐκ ἔχει δ' ὦτα.
30 Τὰ δ' ἄλλα κινεῖ πάντα. Κεῖται δὲ τὰ ὦτα ἐπὶ τῆς αὐτῆς
περιφερείας τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ ἐνίοις τῶν τετραπόδων
ἄνωθεν. Ὤτων δὲ τὰ μὲν ψιλά, τὰ δὲ δασέα, τὰ
δὲ μέσα· βέλτιστα δὲ τὰ μέσα πρὸς ἀκοήν, ἦθος δ' οὐδὲν
σημαίνει. Καὶ ἢ μεγάλα ἢ μικρὰ ἢ μέσα, ἢ ἐπανεστηκότα
Furthermore, there is a portion of the head, whereby an animal hears, a part incapable of breathing, the 'ear'. I say 'incapable of breathing', for Alcmaeon is mistaken when he says that goats 15inspire through their ears. Of the ear one part is unnamed, the other part is called the 'lobe'; and it is entirely composed of gristle and flesh. The ear is constructed internally like the trumpet-shell, and the innermost bone is like the ear itself, and into it at the end the sound makes its way, as into the bottom of a jar. This receptacle does not communicate by any passage with the brain, but does so with 20the palate, and a vein extends from the brain towards it. The eyes also are connected with the brain, and each of them lies at the end of a little vein. Of animals possessed of ears man is the only one that cannot move this organ. Of creatures possessed of hearing, some have ears, whilst others have none, but merely have the passages for ears visible, as, for example, feathered animals or animals coated with 25horny tessellates.
Viviparous animals, with the exception of the seal, the dolphin, and those others which after a similar fashion to these are cetaceans, are all provided with ears; for, by the way, the shark-kind are also viviparous. Now, the seal has the passages visible whereby it hears; but the dolphin can hear, but has no ears, nor yet any passages visible. But man alone is unable to move his ears, and 30all other animals can move them. And the ears lie, with man, in the same horizontal plane with the eyes, and not in a plane above them as is the case with some quadrupeds. Of ears, some are fine, some are coarse, and some are of medium texture; the last kind are best for hearing, but they serve in no way to indicate character.
Viviparous animals, with the exception of the seal, the dolphin, and those others which after a similar fashion to these are cetaceans, are all provided with ears; for, by the way, the shark-kind are also viviparous. Now, the seal has the passages visible whereby it hears; but the dolphin can hear, but has no ears, nor yet any passages visible. But man alone is unable to move his ears, and 30all other animals can move them. And the ears lie, with man, in the same horizontal plane with the eyes, and not in a plane above them as is the case with some quadrupeds. Of ears, some are fine, some are coarse, and some are of medium texture; the last kind are best for hearing, but they serve in no way to indicate character.
492b
1 σφόδρα ἢ οὐδὲν ἢ μέσον· τὰ δὲ μέσα βελτίστου ἤθους
σημεῖον, τὰ δὲ μεγάλα καὶ ἐπανεστηκότα μωρολογίας καὶ
ἀδολεσχίας. Τὸ δὲ μεταξὺ ὀφθαλμοῦ καὶ ὠτὸς καὶ κορυφῆς
καλεῖται κρόταφος.
5 Ἔτι προσώπου μέρος τὸ μὲν ὂν τῷ πνεύματι πόρος ῥίς·
καὶ γὰρ ἀναπνεῖ καὶ ἐκπνεῖ ταύτῃ, καὶ ὁ πταρμὸς διὰ
ταύτης γίνεται, πνεύματος ἀθρόου ἔξοδος, σημεῖον οἰωνιστικὸν
καὶ ἱερὸν μόνον τῶν πνευμάτων. Ἅμα δ' ἡ ἀνάπνευσις καὶ
ἔκπνευσις γίνεται εἰς τὸ στῆθος, καὶ ἀδύνατον χωρὶς τοῖς
10 μυκτῆρσιν ἀναπνεῦσαι ἢ ἐκπνεῦσαι, διὰ τὸ ἐκ τοῦ στήθους εἶναι
τὴν ἀναπνοὴν καὶ ἐκπνοὴν κατὰ τὸν γαργαρεῶνα, καὶ
μὴ ἐκ τῆς κεφαλῆς τινι μέρει· ἐνδέχεται δὲ καὶ μὴ χρώμενον
ταύτῃ ζῆν. Ἡ δ' ὄσφρησις γίνεται διὰ τούτου τοῦ μέρους·
αὕτη δ' ἐστὶν ἡ αἴσθησις ὀσμῆς. Εὐκίνητος δ' ὁ μυκτήρ, καὶ
15 οὐχ ὥσπερ τὸ οὖς ἀκίνητον κατ' ἰδίαν. Μέρος δ' αὐτοῦ τὸ μὲν
διάφραγμα χόνδρος, τὸ δ' ὀχέτευμα κενόν· ἔστι γὰρ ὁ μυκτὴρ
διχότομος. Τοῖς δ' ἐλέφασιν ὁ μυκτὴρ γίνεται μακρὸς
καὶ ἰσχυρός, καὶ χρῆται αὐτῷ ὥσπερ χειρί· προςάγεταί
τε γὰρ καὶ λαμβάνει τούτῳ καὶ εἰς τὸ στόμα προςφέρεται
20 τὴν τροφήν, καὶ τὴν ὑγρὰν καὶ τὴν ξηράν, μόνον
τῶν ζῴων.
Ἔτι δὲ σιαγόνες δύο· τούτων τὸ πρόσθιον γένειον, τὸ δ'
ὀπίσθιον γένυς. Κινεῖ δὲ πάντα τὰ ζῷα τὴν κάτωθεν γένυν,
πλὴν τοῦ ποταμίου κροκοδείλου· οὗτος δὲ τὴν ἄνω μόνον. Μετὰ
25 δὲ τὴν ῥῖνα χείλη δύο, σὰρξ εὐκίνητος. Τὸ δ' ἐντὸς στόμα
σιαγόνων καὶ χειλῶν. Τούτου μέρη τὸ μὲν ὑπερῷα τὸ δὲ
φάρυγξ. Τὸ δ' αἰσθητικὸν χυμοῦ γλῶττα· ἡ δ' αἴσθησις ἐν
τῷ ἄκρῳ· ἐὰν δέ <τι> ἐπὶ τὸ πλατὺ ἐπιτεθῇ, ἧττον. Αἰσθάνεται
δὲ καὶ ὧν ἡ ἄλλη σὰρξ πάντων, οἷον σκληροῦ θερμοῦ καὶ
30 ψυχροῦ καθ' ὁτιοῦν μέρος, ὥσπερ καὶ χυμοῦ. Αὕτη δ' ἢ πλατεῖα
ἢ στενὴ ἢ μέση· ἡ μέση δὲ βελτίστη καὶ σαφεστάτη.
Καὶ ἢ λελυμένη ἢ καταδεδεμένη, ὥσπερ τοῖς ψελλοῖς καὶ
τοῖς τραυλοῖς. Ἔστι δ' ἡ γλῶττα σὰρξ μανὴ καὶ σομφή.
Ταύτης τι μέρος ἐπιγλωττίς. Καὶ τὸ μὲν διφυὲς τοῦ στόματος
1Some ears are large, some small, some medium-sized; again, some stand out far, some lie in close and tight, and some take up a medium position; of these such as are of medium size and of medium position are indications of the best disposition, while the large and outstanding ones indicate a tendency to irrelevant talk or chattering. The part intercepted between the eye, 5the ear, and the crown is termed the 'temple'. Again, there is a part of the countenance that serves as a passage for the breath, the 'nose'. For a man inhales and exhales by this organ, and sneezing is effected by its means: which last is an outward rush of collected breath, and is the only mode of breath used as an omen and regarded as supernatural. Both inhalation and exhalation go right on from the nose towards the chest; and with the nostrils alone and 10separately it is impossible to inhale or exhale, owing to the fact that the inspiration and respiration take place from the chest along the windpipe, and not by any portion connected with the head; and indeed it is possible for a creature to live without using this process of nasal respiration.
Again, smelling takes place by means of the nose,-smelling, or the sensible discrimination of odour. And the nostril admits of easy motion, and is not, like the ear, 15intrinsically immovable. A part of it, composed of gristle, constitutes, a septum or partition, and part is an open passage; for the nostril consists of two separate channels. The nostril (or nose) of the elephant is long and strong, and the animal uses it like a hand; for by means of this organ it draws objects towards it, and takes hold of them, and introduces its food into its mouth, whether liquid or dry food, and it is the only living creature that does 20so.
Furthermore, there are two jaws; the front part of them constitutes the chin, and the hinder part the cheek. All animals move the lower jaw, with the exception of the river crocodile; this creature moves the upper jaw only.
Next after the nose come two lips, composed of flesh, and facile of motion. The mouth lies inside the jaws and lips. Parts of the mouth are the roof or palate and the pharynx.
The part that is sensible of taste is the tongue. The sensation 25has its seat at the tip of the tongue; if the object to be tasted be placed on the flat surface of the organ, the taste is less sensibly experienced. The tongue is sensitive in all other ways wherein flesh in general is so: that is, it can appreciate hardness, or warmth and cold, in any part of it, just as it can appreciate taste. The tongue is sometimes broad, sometimes narrow, and sometimes of medium width; the last kind is the best and the clearest in its 30discrimination of taste. Moreover, the tongue is sometimes loosely hung, and sometimes fastened: as in the case of those who mumble and who lisp.
The tongue consists of flesh, soft and spongy, and the so-called 'epiglottis' is a part of this organ.
That part of the mouth that splits into two bits is called the 'tonsils'; that part that splits into many bits, the 'gums'.
Again, smelling takes place by means of the nose,-smelling, or the sensible discrimination of odour. And the nostril admits of easy motion, and is not, like the ear, 15intrinsically immovable. A part of it, composed of gristle, constitutes, a septum or partition, and part is an open passage; for the nostril consists of two separate channels. The nostril (or nose) of the elephant is long and strong, and the animal uses it like a hand; for by means of this organ it draws objects towards it, and takes hold of them, and introduces its food into its mouth, whether liquid or dry food, and it is the only living creature that does 20so.
Furthermore, there are two jaws; the front part of them constitutes the chin, and the hinder part the cheek. All animals move the lower jaw, with the exception of the river crocodile; this creature moves the upper jaw only.
Next after the nose come two lips, composed of flesh, and facile of motion. The mouth lies inside the jaws and lips. Parts of the mouth are the roof or palate and the pharynx.
The part that is sensible of taste is the tongue. The sensation 25has its seat at the tip of the tongue; if the object to be tasted be placed on the flat surface of the organ, the taste is less sensibly experienced. The tongue is sensitive in all other ways wherein flesh in general is so: that is, it can appreciate hardness, or warmth and cold, in any part of it, just as it can appreciate taste. The tongue is sometimes broad, sometimes narrow, and sometimes of medium width; the last kind is the best and the clearest in its 30discrimination of taste. Moreover, the tongue is sometimes loosely hung, and sometimes fastened: as in the case of those who mumble and who lisp.
The tongue consists of flesh, soft and spongy, and the so-called 'epiglottis' is a part of this organ.
That part of the mouth that splits into two bits is called the 'tonsils'; that part that splits into many bits, the 'gums'.
493a
1 παρίσθμιον, τὸ δὲ πολυφυὲς οὖλον· σάρκινα δὲ
ταῦτα. Ἐντὸς δ' ὀδόντες ὀστέινοι. Εἴσω δ' ἄλλο μόριον σταφυλοφόρον,
κίων ἐπίφλεβος· ὃς ἐὰν ἐξυγρανθεὶς φλεγμήνῃ, σταφυλὴ
καλεῖται καὶ πνίγει.
1Both the tonsils and the gums are composed of flesh. In the gums are teeth, composed of bone.
Inside the mouth is another part, shaped like a bunch of grapes, a pillar streaked with veins. If this pillar gets relaxed and inflamed it is called 'uvula' or 'bunch of grapes', and it then has a tendency to bring about suffocation.
Inside the mouth is another part, shaped like a bunch of grapes, a pillar streaked with veins. If this pillar gets relaxed and inflamed it is called 'uvula' or 'bunch of grapes', and it then has a tendency to bring about suffocation.
Book 1,Chapter 12 (493a5–16)
5 Αὐχὴν δὲ τὸ μεταξὺ προσώπου καὶ θώρακος. Καὶ τούτου
τὸ μὲν πρόσθιον μέρος λάρυγξ, [τὸ δ' ὀπίσθιον στόμαχος].
Τούτου δὲ τὸ μὲν χονδρῶδες καὶ πρόσθιον, δι' οὗ ἡ φωνὴ καὶ
ἡ ἀναπνοή, ἀρτηρία· τὸ δὲ σαρκῶδες στόμαχος, ἐντὸς πρὸ
τῆς ῥάχεως. Τὸ δ' ὀπίσθιον αὐχένος μέρος ἐπωμίς. Ταῦτα
10 μὲν οὖν τὰ μόρια μέχρι τοῦ θώρακος.
Θώρακος δὲ μέρη τὰ μὲν πρόσθια τὰ δ' ὀπίσθια.
Πρῶτον μὲν μετὰ τὸν αὐχένα ἐν τοῖς προσθίοις στῆθος διφυὲς
μαστοῖς. Τούτων ἡ θηλὴ διφυής, δι' ἧς τοῖς θήλεσι τὸ γάλα
διηθεῖται· ὁ δὲ μαστὸς μανός. Ἐγγίνεται δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἄρρεσι
15 γάλα· ἀλλὰ πυκνὴ ἡ σὰρξ τοῖς ἄρρεσι, ταῖς δὲ γυναιξὶ
σομφὴ καὶ πόρων μεστή.
The neck is the 5part between the face and the trunk. Of this the front part is the larynx land the back part the ur The front part, composed of gristle, through which respiration and speech is effected, is termed the 'windpipe'; the part that is fleshy is the oesophagus, inside just in front of the chine. The part to the back of the neck is the epomis, or 'shoulder-point'.
These then are the parts to be met with before you come to the thorax.
To 10the trunk there is a front part and a back part. Next after the neck in the front part is the chest, with a pair of breasts. To each of the breasts is attached a teat or nipple, through which in the case of females the milk percolates; and the breast is of a spongy texture. Milk, by the way, is found at times in the male; but with the male the flesh of the breast is tough, with the female it is soft and porous.
These then are the parts to be met with before you come to the thorax.
To 10the trunk there is a front part and a back part. Next after the neck in the front part is the chest, with a pair of breasts. To each of the breasts is attached a teat or nipple, through which in the case of females the milk percolates; and the breast is of a spongy texture. Milk, by the way, is found at times in the male; but with the male the flesh of the breast is tough, with the female it is soft and porous.
Book 1,Chapter 13 (493a17–493b1)
Μετὰ δὲ τὸν θώρακα ἐν τοῖς προσθίοις γαστήρ, καὶ
ταύτης ῥίζα ὀμφαλός· ὑπόρριζον δὲ τὸ μὲν διφυὲς λαγών,
τὸ δὲ μονοφυὲς τὸ μὲν ὑπὸ τὸν ὀμφαλὸν ἦτρον (τούτου δὲ τὸ
20 ἔσχατον ἐπίσιον), τὸ δ' ὑπὲρ τὸν ὀμφαλὸν ὑποχόνδριον, τὸ
δὲ κοινὸν ὑποχονδρίου καὶ λαγόνος χολάς. Τῶν δ' ὄπισθεν
διάζωμα μὲν ἡ ὀσφύς (ὅθεν καὶ τοὔνομ' ἔχει· δοκεῖ γὰρ
εἶναι ἰσοφυές), τοῦ δὲ διεξοδικοῦ τὸ μὲν οἷον ἐφέδρανον γλουτός,
τὸ δ' ἐν ᾧ στρέφεται ὁ μηρός, κοτυληδών. Τοῦ δὲ θήλεος
25 ἴδιον μέρος ὑστέρα, καὶ τοῦ ἄρρενος αἰδοῖον, ἔξωθεν ἐπὶ
τῷ τέλει τοῦ θώρακος, διμερές, τὸ μὲν ἄκρον σαρκῶδες καὶ
ἀεὶ λεῖον <καὶ> ὡς εἰπεῖν ἴσον, ὃ καλεῖται βάλανος, τὸ δὲ περὶ
αὐτὴν ἀνώνυμον δέρμα, ὃ ἐὰν διακοπῇ, οὐ συμφύεται, οὐδὲ
γνάθος οὐδὲ βλεφαρίς. Κοινὸν δὲ τούτου καὶ τῆς βαλάνου ἀκροποσθία.
30 Τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν μέρος χονδρῶδες, εὐαυξές, καὶ ἐξέρχεται
καὶ εἰσέρχεται ἐναντίως ἢ τοῖς λοφούροις. Τοῦ δ' αἰδοίου
ὑποκάτω ὄρχεις δύο. Τὸ δὲ πέριξ δέρμα, ὃ καλεῖται
ὄσχεος. Οἱ δ' ὄρχεις οὔτε ταὐτὸ σαρκὶ οὔτε πόρρω σαρκός· ὃν
Next after 15the thorax and in front comes the 'belly', and its root the 'navel'. Underneath this root the bilateral part is the 'flank': the undivided part below the navel, the 'abdomen', the extremity of which is the region of the 'pubes'; above the navel the 'hypochondrium'; the cavity common to the hypochondrium and the flank is the gut-cavity.
Serving as a brace girdle to the hinder parts is the pelvis, and hence it gets its name 20(osphus), for it is symmetrical (isophues) in appearance; of the fundament the part for resting on is termed the 'rump', and the part whereon the thigh pivots is termed the 'socket' (or acetabulum).
The 'womb' is a part peculiar to the female; and the 'penis' is peculiar to the male. This latter organ is external and situated at the extremity of the trunk; it is composed of two separate parts: of which the extreme part is fleshy, 25does not alter in size, and is called the glans; and round about it is a skin devoid of any specific title, which integument if it be cut asunder never grows together again, any more than does the jaw or the eyelid. And the connexion between the latter and the glans is called the frenum. The remaining part of the penis is composed of gristle; it is easily susceptible of enlargement; and it protrudes and recedes in the 30reverse directions to what is observable in the identical organ in cats. Underneath the penis are two 'testicles', and the integument of these is a skin that is termed the 'scrotum'.
Testicles are not identical with flesh, and are not altogether diverse from it.
Serving as a brace girdle to the hinder parts is the pelvis, and hence it gets its name 20(osphus), for it is symmetrical (isophues) in appearance; of the fundament the part for resting on is termed the 'rump', and the part whereon the thigh pivots is termed the 'socket' (or acetabulum).
The 'womb' is a part peculiar to the female; and the 'penis' is peculiar to the male. This latter organ is external and situated at the extremity of the trunk; it is composed of two separate parts: of which the extreme part is fleshy, 25does not alter in size, and is called the glans; and round about it is a skin devoid of any specific title, which integument if it be cut asunder never grows together again, any more than does the jaw or the eyelid. And the connexion between the latter and the glans is called the frenum. The remaining part of the penis is composed of gristle; it is easily susceptible of enlargement; and it protrudes and recedes in the 30reverse directions to what is observable in the identical organ in cats. Underneath the penis are two 'testicles', and the integument of these is a skin that is termed the 'scrotum'.
Testicles are not identical with flesh, and are not altogether diverse from it.
493b
1 τρόπον δ' ἔχουσιν, ὕστερον δι' ἀκριβείας λεχθήσεται καθόλου
περὶ πάντων τῶν τοιούτων μορίων.
1But by and by we shall treat in an exhaustive way regarding all such parts.
Book 1,Chapter 14 (493b2–11)
Τὸ δὲ τῆς γυναικὸς αἰδοῖον
ἐξ ἐναντίας τῷ τῶν ἀρρένων· κοῖλον γὰρ τὸ ὑπὸ τὴν ἥβην
καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ τὸ τοῦ ἄρρενος ἐξεστηκός. Καὶ οὐρήθρα ἔξω τῶν
5 ὑστερῶν, δίοδος τῷ σπέρματι τοῦ ἄρρενος. Τοῦ δ' ὑγροῦ περιττώματος
ἀμφοῖν ἔξοδος.
Κοινὸν δὲ μέρος αὐχένος καὶ στήθους σφαγή, πλευρᾶς
δὲ καὶ βραχίονος καὶ ὤμου μασχάλη, μηροῦ δὲ καὶ ἤτρου
βουβών. Μηροῦ δὲ καὶ γλουτοῦ τὸ ἐντὸς περίνεον, μηροῦ δὲ καὶ
10 γλουτοῦ τὸ ἔξω ὑπογλουτίς.
Θώρακος δὲ περὶ μὲν τῶν ἔμπροσθεν εἴρηται, τοῦ δὲ
στήθους τὸ ὄπισθεν νῶτος.
The privy part of the female is in character opposite to that of the male. In other words, the part under the pubes is hollow or receding, and not, like the male organ, protruding. Further, there is an 'urethra' outside the womb; which 5organ serves as a passage for the sperm of the male, and as an outlet for liquid excretion to both sexes).
The part common to the neck and chest is the 'throat'; the 'armpit' is common to side, arm, and shoulder; and the 'groin' is common to thigh and abdomen. The part inside the thigh and buttocks is the 'perineum', and the part outside the thigh and buttocks is the 'hypoglutis'.
The front 10parts of the trunk have now been enumerated. The part behind the chest is termed the 'back'.
The part common to the neck and chest is the 'throat'; the 'armpit' is common to side, arm, and shoulder; and the 'groin' is common to thigh and abdomen. The part inside the thigh and buttocks is the 'perineum', and the part outside the thigh and buttocks is the 'hypoglutis'.
The front 10parts of the trunk have now been enumerated. The part behind the chest is termed the 'back'.
Book 1,Chapter 15 (493b12–494b18)
Νώτου δὲ μέρη ὠμοπλάται δύο καὶ
ῥάχις, ὑποκάτωθεν δὲ κατὰ τὴν γαστέρα ὀσφύς. Κοινὸν δὲ
τοῦ ἄνω καὶ κάτω τοῦ θώρακος πλευραί, ἑκατέρωθεν ὀκτώ·
15 περὶ γὰρ Λιγύων τῶν καλουμένων ἑπταπλεύρων οὐδενός πω
ἀξιοπίστου ἀκηκόαμεν.
Ἔχει δ' ὁ ἄνθρωπος καὶ τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω, καὶ
τὰ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὰ ὀπίσθια, καὶ δεξιὰ καὶ ἀριστερά. Τὰ μὲν οὖν
δεξιὰ καὶ ἀριστερὰ ὅμοια σχεδὸν ἐν τοῖς μέρεσι καὶ ταὐτὰ
20 πάντα, πλὴν ἀσθενέστερα τὰ ἀριστερά· τὰ δ' ὀπίσθια τοῖς
προσθίοις ἀνόμοια, καὶ τὰ κάτω τοῖς ἄνω, πλὴν ὧδε ὅμοια,
τὰ κάτω τοῦ ἤτρου οἷον τὸ πρόσωπον εὐσαρκίᾳ καὶ
ἀσαρκίᾳ, καὶ τὰ σκέλη πρὸς τοὺς βραχίονας ἀντίκειται·
καὶ οἷς βραχεῖς οἱ ἀγκῶνες, καὶ οἱ μηροὶ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολύ,
25 καὶ οἷς οἱ πόδες μικροί, καὶ αἱ χεῖρες.
Κώλων δὲ τὸ μὲν διφυὲς βραχίων· βραχίονος δὲ ὦμος,
ἀγκών, ὠλέκρανον, πῆχυς, χείρ· χειρὸς δὲ θέναρ, δάκτυλοι
πέντε· δακτύλου δὲ τὸ μὲν καμπτικὸν κόνδυλος, τὸ δ'
ἄκαμπτον φάλαγξ. Δάκτυλος δ' ὁ μὲν μέγας μονοκόνδυλος,
30 οἱ δ' ἄλλοι δικόνδυλοι. Ἡ δὲ κάμψις καὶ τῷ βραχίονι
καὶ τῷ δακτύλῳ εἴσω πᾶσιν· κάμπτεται δ' ὁ βραχίων
κατὰ τὸ ὠλέκρανον. Χειρὸς δὲ τὸ μὲν ἐντὸς θέναρ,
σαρκῶδες καὶ διῃρημένον ἄρθροις, τοῖς μὲν μακροβίοις ἑνὶ ἢ
Parts of the back are a pair of 'shoulderblades', the 'back-bone', and, underneath on a level with the belly in the trunk, the 'loins'. Common to the upper and lower part of the trunk are the 'ribs', eight on either side, for as to the so-called seven-ribbed Ligyans we have not received any 15trustworthy evidence.
Man, then, has an upper and a lower part, a front and a back part, a right and a left side. Now the right and the left side are pretty well alike in their parts and identical throughout, except that the left side is the weaker of the two; but the back parts do not resemble the front ones, neither do the lower ones the upper: only that these upper and lower parts may be 20said to resemble one another thus far, that, if the face be plump or meagre, the abdomen is plump or meagre to correspond; and that the legs correspond to the arms, and where the upper arm is short the thigh is usually short also, and where the feet are small the hands are small correspondingly.
Of the limbs, one set, forming a pair, is 'arms'. To the arm belong the 'shoulder', 'upper-arm', 25'elbow', 'fore-arm', and 'hand'. To the hand belong the 'palm', and the five 'fingers'. The part of the finger that bends is termed 'knuckle', the part that is inflexible is termed the 'phalanx'. The big finger or thumb is single-jointed, the other fingers are double jointed. The bending both of the arm and of the finger takes place from without inwards in all cases; and the arm bends 30at the elbow. The inner part of the hand is termed the palm', and is fleshy and divided by joints or lines: in the case of long-lived people by one or two extending right across, in the case of the short-lived by two, not so extending.
Man, then, has an upper and a lower part, a front and a back part, a right and a left side. Now the right and the left side are pretty well alike in their parts and identical throughout, except that the left side is the weaker of the two; but the back parts do not resemble the front ones, neither do the lower ones the upper: only that these upper and lower parts may be 20said to resemble one another thus far, that, if the face be plump or meagre, the abdomen is plump or meagre to correspond; and that the legs correspond to the arms, and where the upper arm is short the thigh is usually short also, and where the feet are small the hands are small correspondingly.
Of the limbs, one set, forming a pair, is 'arms'. To the arm belong the 'shoulder', 'upper-arm', 25'elbow', 'fore-arm', and 'hand'. To the hand belong the 'palm', and the five 'fingers'. The part of the finger that bends is termed 'knuckle', the part that is inflexible is termed the 'phalanx'. The big finger or thumb is single-jointed, the other fingers are double jointed. The bending both of the arm and of the finger takes place from without inwards in all cases; and the arm bends 30at the elbow. The inner part of the hand is termed the palm', and is fleshy and divided by joints or lines: in the case of long-lived people by one or two extending right across, in the case of the short-lived by two, not so extending.
494a
1 δυσὶ δι' ὅλου, τοῖς δὲ βραχυβίοις δυσὶ καὶ οὐ δι' ὅλου.
Ἄρθρον δὲ χειρὸς καὶ βραχίονος καρπός. Τὸ δ' ἔξω τῆς χειρὸς
νευρῶδες καὶ ἀνώνυμον.
Κώλων δὲ διμερὲς ἄλλο σκέλος. Σκέλους δὲ τὸ μὲν
5 ἀμφικέφαλον μηρός, τὸ δὲ πλανησίεδρον μύλη, τὸ δὲ διόστεον
κνήμη, καὶ ταύτης τὸ μὲν πρόσθιον ἀντικνήμιον, τὸ δ'
ὀπίσθιον γαστροκνημία, σὰρξ νευρώδης καὶ φλεβώδης, τοῖς μὲν
ἀνεσπασμένη ἄνω πρὸς τὴν ἰγνύν, ὅσοι μεγάλα τὰ ἰσχία
ἔχουσι, τοῖς δ' ἐναντίως κατεσπασμένη· τὸ δ' ἔσχατον ἀντικνημίου
10 σφυρόν, διφυὲς ἐν ἑκατέρῳ τῷ σκέλει. Τὸ δὲ πολυόστεον
τοῦ σκέλους πούς. Τούτου δὲ τὸ μὲν ὀπίσθιον μέρος πτέρνα,
τὸ δ' ἐμπρόσθιον τοῦ ποδὸς τὸ μὲν ἐσχισμένον δάκτυλοι
πέντε, τὸ δὲ σαρκῶδες κάτωθεν στῆθος, τὸ δ' ἄνωθεν ἐν
τοῖς πρανέσι νευρῶδες καὶ ἀνώνυμον. Δακτύλου δὲ τὸ μὲν
15 ὄνυξ, τὸ δὲ καμπή· πάντων δ' ὁ ὄνυξ ἐπ' ἄκρῳ· μονόκαμπτοι
δὲ πάντες οἱ κάτω δάκτυλοι. Τοῦ δὲ ποδὸς ὅσοις
τὸ ἐντὸς παχὺ καὶ μὴ κοῖλον, ἀλλὰ βαίνουσιν ὅλῳ, πανοῦργοι.
Κοινὸν δὲ μηροῦ καὶ κνήμης γόνυ καμπή.
Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν τὰ μέρη κοινὰ καὶ θήλεος καὶ ἄρρενος.
20 Ἡ δὲ θέσις τῶν μερῶν πρὸς τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω καὶ πρόσθιον
καὶ ὀπίσθιον καὶ δεξιὸν καὶ ἀριστερὸν ὡς ἔχει, φανερὰ μὲν
ἂν εἶναι δόξειε τὰ ἔξωθεν κατὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν, οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ
διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν λεκτέον δι' ἥνπερ καὶ τὰ πρότερον εἰρήκαμεν,
ἵνα περαίνηται τὸ ἐφεξῆς, καὶ καταριθμουμένων
25 ὅπως ἧττον λανθάνῃ τὰ μὴ τὸν αὐτὸν ἔχοντα τρόπον ἐπί τε
τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων. Μάλιστα δ' ἔχει
διωρισμένα πρὸς τοὺς κατὰ φύσιν τόπους τὰ ἄνω καὶ κάτω
ἄνθρωπος τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων· τά τε γὰρ ἄνω καὶ κάτω πρὸς
τὰ τοῦ παντὸς ἄνω καὶ κάτω τέτακται. Τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον
30 καὶ τὰ πρόσθια καὶ τὰ ὀπίσθια καὶ τὰ δεξιὰ καὶ τὰ ἀριστερὰ
κατὰ φύσιν ἔχει. Τῶν δ' ἄλλων ζῴων τὰ μὲν οὐκ
ἔχει, τὰ δ' ἔχει μὲν συγκεχυμένα δ' ἔχει μᾶλλον. Ἡ μὲν
οὖν κεφαλὴ πᾶσιν ἄνω πρὸς τὸ σῶμα τὸ ἑαυτῶν· ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος
μόνος, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, πρὸς τὸ τοῦ ὅλου τελειωθεὶς
1The joint between hand and arm is termed the 'wrist'. The outside or back of the hand is sinewy, and has no specific designation.
There is another duplicate limb, the 'leg'. Of this limb the double-knobbed part is termed the 'thigh-bone', the sliding part of the 'kneecap', the double-boned part 5the 'leg'; the front part of this latter is termed the 'shin', and the part behind it the 'calf', wherein the flesh is sinewy and venous, in some cases drawn upwards towards the hollow behind the knee, as in the case of people with large hips, and in other cases drawn downwards. The lower extremity of the shin is the 'ankle', duplicate in either leg. The part of 10the limb that contains a multiplicity of bones is the 'foot'. The hinder part of the foot is the 'heel'; at the front of it the divided part consists of 'toes', five in number; the fleshy part underneath is the 'ball'; the upper part or back of the foot is sinewy and has no particular appellation; of the toe, one portion is the 'nail' and another the 'joint', and the 15nail is in all cases at the extremity; and toes are without exception single jointed. Men that have the inside or sole of the foot clumsy and not arched, that is, that walk resting on the entire under-surface of their feet, are prone to roguery. The joint common to thigh and shin is the 'knee'.
These, then, are the parts common to the male and the female sex. The 20relative position of the parts as to up and down, or to front and back, or to right and left, all this as regards externals might safely be left to mere ordinary perception. But for all that, we must treat of them for the same reason as the one previously brought forward; that is to say, we must refer to them in order that a due and regular sequence may be observed 25in our exposition, and in order that by the enumeration of these obvious facts due attention may be subsequently given to those parts in men and other animals that are diverse in any way from one another.
In man, above all other animals, the terms 'upper' and 'lower' are used in harmony with their natural positions; for in him, upper and lower have the same meaning 30as when they are applied to the universe as a whole. In like manner the terms, 'in front', 'behind', 'right' and 'left', are used in accordance with their natural sense. But in regard to other animals, in some cases these distinctions do not exist, and in others they do so, but in a vague way.
There is another duplicate limb, the 'leg'. Of this limb the double-knobbed part is termed the 'thigh-bone', the sliding part of the 'kneecap', the double-boned part 5the 'leg'; the front part of this latter is termed the 'shin', and the part behind it the 'calf', wherein the flesh is sinewy and venous, in some cases drawn upwards towards the hollow behind the knee, as in the case of people with large hips, and in other cases drawn downwards. The lower extremity of the shin is the 'ankle', duplicate in either leg. The part of 10the limb that contains a multiplicity of bones is the 'foot'. The hinder part of the foot is the 'heel'; at the front of it the divided part consists of 'toes', five in number; the fleshy part underneath is the 'ball'; the upper part or back of the foot is sinewy and has no particular appellation; of the toe, one portion is the 'nail' and another the 'joint', and the 15nail is in all cases at the extremity; and toes are without exception single jointed. Men that have the inside or sole of the foot clumsy and not arched, that is, that walk resting on the entire under-surface of their feet, are prone to roguery. The joint common to thigh and shin is the 'knee'.
These, then, are the parts common to the male and the female sex. The 20relative position of the parts as to up and down, or to front and back, or to right and left, all this as regards externals might safely be left to mere ordinary perception. But for all that, we must treat of them for the same reason as the one previously brought forward; that is to say, we must refer to them in order that a due and regular sequence may be observed 25in our exposition, and in order that by the enumeration of these obvious facts due attention may be subsequently given to those parts in men and other animals that are diverse in any way from one another.
In man, above all other animals, the terms 'upper' and 'lower' are used in harmony with their natural positions; for in him, upper and lower have the same meaning 30as when they are applied to the universe as a whole. In like manner the terms, 'in front', 'behind', 'right' and 'left', are used in accordance with their natural sense. But in regard to other animals, in some cases these distinctions do not exist, and in others they do so, but in a vague way.
494b
1 ἔχει τοῦτο τὸ μόριον. Μετὰ δὲ τὴν κεφαλήν ἐστιν ὁ αὐχήν,
εἶτα στῆθος καὶ νῶτος, τὸ μὲν ἐκ τοῦ πρόσθεν τὸ δ' ἐκ τοῦ
ὄπισθεν. Καὶ ἐχόμενα τούτων γαστὴρ καὶ ὀσφὺς καὶ αἰδοῖον
καὶ ἰσχίον, εἶτα μηρὸς καὶ κνήμη, τελευταῖον δὲ πόδες. Εἰς
5 τὸ πρόσθεν δὲ καὶ τὰ σκέλη τὴν κάμψιν ἔχει, ἐφ' ὃ καὶ ἡ
πορεία, καὶ τῶν ποδῶν τὸ κινητικώτερον μέρος καὶ ἡ κάμψις·
ἡ δὲ πτέρνα ἐκ τοῦ ὄπισθεν· τῶν δὲ σφυρῶν ἑκάτερον
κατὰ τὸ οὖς. Ἐκ δὲ τῶν πλαγίων τῶν δεξιῶν καὶ τῶν ἀριστερῶν
οἱ βραχίονες, τὴν κάμψιν ἔχοντες εἰς τὸ ἐντός, ὥστε τὰ
10 κυρτὰ τῶν σκελῶν καὶ τῶν βραχιόνων πρὸς ἄλληλα εἶναι
ἐπ' ἀνθρώπου μάλιστα. Τὰς δ' αἰσθήσεις καὶ τὰ αἰσθητήρια,
ὀφθαλμοὺς καὶ μυκτῆρας καὶ γλῶτταν, ἐπὶ ταὐτὸ καὶ εἰς
τὸ πρόσθιον ἔχει· τὴν δ' ἀκοὴν καὶ τὸ αἰσθητήριον αὐτῆς,
τὰ ὦτα, ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου μέν, ἐπὶ τῆς αὐτῆς δὲ περιφερείας
15 τοῖς ὄμμασιν. Τὰ δ' ὄμματα ἐλάχιστον κατὰ μέγεθος
διέστηκεν ἀνθρώπῳ τῶν ζῴων. Ἔχει δ' ἀκριβεστάτην ἄνθρωπος
τῶν αἰσθήσεων τὴν ἁφήν, δευτέραν δὲ τὴν γεῦσιν· ἐν δὲ ταῖς
ἄλλαις λείπεται πολλῶν.
1For instance, the head with all animals is up and above in respect to their bodies; but man alone, as has been said, has, in maturity, this part uppermost in respect to the material universe.
Next after the head comes the neck, and then the chest and the back: the one in front and the other behind. 5Next after these come the belly, the loins, the sexual parts, and the haunches; then the thigh and shin; and, lastly, the feet.
The legs bend frontwards, in the direction of actual progression, and frontwards also lies that part of the foot which is the most effective of motion, and the flexure of that part; but the heel lies at the back, and the anklebones lie laterally, 10earwise. The arms are situated to right and left, and bend inwards: so that the convexities formed by bent arms and legs are practically face to face with one another in the case of man.
As for the senses and for the organs of sensation, the eyes, the nostrils, and the tongue, all alike are situated frontwards; the sense of hearing, and the organ of hearing, the ear, is 15situated sideways, on the same horizontal plane with the eyes. The eyes in man are, in proportion to his size, nearer to one another than in any other animal.
Of the senses man has the sense of touch more refined than any animal, and so also, but in less degree, the sense of taste; in the development of the other senses he is surpassed by a great number of animals.
Next after the head comes the neck, and then the chest and the back: the one in front and the other behind. 5Next after these come the belly, the loins, the sexual parts, and the haunches; then the thigh and shin; and, lastly, the feet.
The legs bend frontwards, in the direction of actual progression, and frontwards also lies that part of the foot which is the most effective of motion, and the flexure of that part; but the heel lies at the back, and the anklebones lie laterally, 10earwise. The arms are situated to right and left, and bend inwards: so that the convexities formed by bent arms and legs are practically face to face with one another in the case of man.
As for the senses and for the organs of sensation, the eyes, the nostrils, and the tongue, all alike are situated frontwards; the sense of hearing, and the organ of hearing, the ear, is 15situated sideways, on the same horizontal plane with the eyes. The eyes in man are, in proportion to his size, nearer to one another than in any other animal.
Of the senses man has the sense of touch more refined than any animal, and so also, but in less degree, the sense of taste; in the development of the other senses he is surpassed by a great number of animals.
Book 1,Chapter 16 (494b19–496a3)
Τὰ μὲν οὖν μόρια τὰ πρὸς τὴν ἔξω ἐπιφάνειαν τοῦτον
20 τέτακται τὸν τρόπον, καὶ καθάπερ ἐλέχθη, διωνόμασταί τε
μάλιστα καὶ γνώριμα διὰ τὴν συνήθειάν ἐστιν· τὰ δ' ἐντὸς τοὐναντίον.
Ἄγνωστα γάρ ἐστι μάλιστα τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων, ὥστε
δεῖ πρὸς τὰ τῶν ἄλλων μόρια ζῴων ἀνάγοντας σκοπεῖν, οἷς
ἔχει παραπλησίαν τὴν φύσιν. Πρῶτον μὲν οὖν τῆς κεφαλῆς
25 κεῖται τὴν θέσιν ἐν τῷ πρόσθεν ἔχων ὁ ἐγκέφαλος. Ὁμοίως
δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ζῴοις, ὅσα ἔχει τοῦτο τὸ μόριον· ἔχει
δ' ἅπαντα ὅσα ἔχει αἷμα, καὶ ἔτι τὰ μαλάκια· κατὰ
μέγεθος δ' ὁμοίως ἔχει ἄνθρωπος πλεῖστον ἐγκέφαλον καὶ
ὑγρότατον. Ὑμένες δ' αὐτὸν δύο περιέχουσιν, ὁ μὲν περὶ τὸ
30 ὀστοῦν ἰσχυρότερος, ὁ δὲ περὶ αὐτὸν τὸν ἐγκέφαλον ἥττων
ἐκείνου. Διφυὴς δ' ἐν πᾶσίν ἐστιν ὁ ἐγκέφαλος. Καὶ ἐπὶ τούτου
ἡ καλουμένη παρεγκεφαλὶς ἔσχατον, ἑτέραν ἔχουσα τὴν
μορφὴν καὶ κατὰ τὴν ἁφὴν καὶ κατὰ τὴν ὄψιν. Τὸ δ' ὄπισθεν
τῆς κεφαλῆς κενὸν καὶ κοῖλον πᾶσιν, ὡς ἑκάστοις ὑπάρχει
The 20parts, then, that are externally visible are arranged in the way above stated, and as a rule have their special designations, and from use and wont are known familiarly to all; but this is not the case with the inner parts. For the fact is that the inner parts of man are to a very great extent unknown, and the consequence is that we must have recourse to an examination of 25the inner parts of other animals whose nature in any way resembles that of man.
In the first place then, the brain lies in the front part of the head. And this holds alike with all animals possessed of a brain; and all blooded animals are possessed thereof, and, by the way, molluscs as well. But, taking size for size of animal, the largest brain, and the moistest, is that 30of man. Two membranes enclose it: the stronger one near the bone of the skull; the inner one, round the brain itself, is finer. The brain in all cases is bilateral. Behind this, right at the back, comes what is termed the 'cerebellum', differing in form from the brain as we may both feel and see.
In the first place then, the brain lies in the front part of the head. And this holds alike with all animals possessed of a brain; and all blooded animals are possessed thereof, and, by the way, molluscs as well. But, taking size for size of animal, the largest brain, and the moistest, is that 30of man. Two membranes enclose it: the stronger one near the bone of the skull; the inner one, round the brain itself, is finer. The brain in all cases is bilateral. Behind this, right at the back, comes what is termed the 'cerebellum', differing in form from the brain as we may both feel and see.
495a
1 μεγέθους. Ἔνια μὲν γὰρ μεγάλην ἔχει τὴν κεφαλήν,
τὸ δ' ὑποκείμενον τοῦ προσώπου μόριον ἔλαττον, ὅσα
στρογγυλοπρόσωπα· τὰ δὲ τὴν μὲν κεφαλὴν μικράν, τὰς δὲ
σιαγόνας μακράς, οἷον τὸ τῶν λοφούρων γένος πᾶν. Ἄναιμος
5 δ' ὁ ἐγκέφαλος ἅπασι, καὶ οὐδεμίαν ἔχων ἐν αὑτῷ φλέβα,
καὶ θιγγανόμενος κατὰ φύσιν ψυχρός. Ἔχει δ' ἐν τῷ μέσῳ
ὁ τῶν πλείστων [πᾶς] κοῖλόν τι μικρόν. Ἡ δὲ περὶ αὐτὸν μῆνιγξ
φλεβώδης· ἔστι δ' ὑμὴν δερματικὸς ἡ μῆνιγξ ὁ περιέχων
τὸν ἐγκέφαλον. Ὑπὲρ δὲ τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου λεπτότατον
10 ὀστοῦν καὶ ἀσθενέστατον τῆς κεφαλῆς ἐστιν, ὃ καλεῖται βρέγμα.
Φέρουσι δ' ἐκ τοῦ ὀφθαλμοῦ τρεῖς πόροι εἰς τὸν ἐγκέφαλον,
ὁ μὲν μέγιστος καὶ ὁ μέσος εἰς τὴν παρεγκεφαλίδα,
ὁ δ' ἐλάχιστος εἰς αὐτὸν τὸν ἐγκέφαλον· ἐλάχιστος δ' ἐστὶν ὁ
πρὸς τῷ μυκτῆρι μάλιστα. Οἱ μὲν οὖν μέγιστοι παράλληλοί
15 εἰσι καὶ οὐ συμπίπτουσιν, οἱ δὲ μέσοι συμπίπτουσι (δῆλον
δὲ τοῦτο μάλιστα ἐπὶ τῶν ἰχθύων)· καὶ γὰρ ἐγγύτερον
οὗτοι τοῦ ἐγκεφάλου ἢ οἱ μεγάλοι· οἱ δ' ἐλάχιστοι πλεῖστόν τε
ἀπήρτηνται ἀλλήλων καὶ οὐ συμπίπτουσιν. Ἐντὸς δὲ τοῦ αὐχένος
ὅ τ' οἰσοφάγος καλούμενός ἐστιν, ἔχων τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν
20 ἀπὸ τοῦ μήκους καὶ τῆς στενότητος, καὶ ἡ ἀρτηρία. Πρότερον
δὲ τῇ θέσει ἡ ἀρτηρία κεῖται τοῦ οἰσοφάγου ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς ἔχουσιν
αὐτήν· ἔχει δὲ ταύτην πάντα ὅσαπερ πλεύμονα ἔχει.
Ἔστι δ' ἡ μὲν ἀρτηρία χονδρώδης τὴν φύσιν καὶ ὀλίγαιμος,
πολλοῖς λεπτοῖς φλεβίοις περιεχομένη, κεῖται δ' ἐπὶ μὲν
25 τὰ ἄνω πρὸς τὸ στόμα κατὰ τὴν ἐκ τῶν μυκτήρων σύντρησιν
εἰς τὸ στόμα, ᾗ καὶ ὅταν πίνοντες ἀνασπάσωσί τι τοῦ ποτοῦ,
χωρεῖ ἐκ τοῦ στόματος διὰ τῶν μυκτήρων ἔξω. Μεταξὺ δ'
ἔχει τῶν τρήσεων τὴν ἐπιγλωττίδα καλουμένην, ἐπιπτύσσεσθαι
δυναμένην ἐπὶ τὸ τῆς ἀρτηρίας τρῆμα τὸ εἰς τὸ στόμα
30 τεῖνον. Ταύτῃ δὲ τὸ πέρας συνήρτηται τῆς γλώττης. Ἐπὶ δὲ
θάτερα καθήκει εἰς τὸ μεταξὺ τοῦ πλεύμονος, εἶτ' ἀπὸ τούτου
σχίζεται εἰς ἑκάτερον τῶν μερῶν τοῦ πλεύμονος. Θέλει γὰρ
εἶναι διμερὴς ὁ πλεύμων ἐν ἅπασι τοῖς ἔχουσιν αὐτόν· ἀλλ'
ἐν μὲν τοῖς ζῳοτόκοις οὐχ ὁμοίως ἡ διάστασις φανερά, ἥκιστα
1The back of the head is with all animals empty and hollow, whatever be its size in the different animals. For some creatures have big heads while the face below is small in proportion, as is the case with round-faced animals; some have little heads and long jaws, as is the case, without exception, 5among animals of the mane-and-tail species.
The brain in all animals is bloodless, devoid of veins, and naturally cold to the touch; in the great majority of animals it has a small hollow in its centre. The brain-caul around it is reticulated with veins; and this brain-caul is that skin-like membrane which closely surrounds the brain. Above the brain is the 10thinnest and weakest bone of the head, which is termed or 'sinciput'.
From the eye there go three ducts to the brain: the largest and the medium-sized to the cerebellum, the least to the brain itself; and the least is the one situated nearest to the nostril. The two largest ones, then, run side by side and do not meet; the medium-sized ones meet-and this is particularly 15visible in fishes,-for they lie nearer than the large ones to the brain; the smallest pair are the most widely separate from one another, and do not meet.
Inside the neck is what is termed the oesophagus (whose other name is derived oesophagus from its length and narrowness), and the windpipe. The windpipe is situated in front of the oesophagus in all animals that 20have a windpipe, and all animals have one that are furnished with lungs. The windpipe is made up of gristle, is sparingly supplied with blood, and is streaked all round with numerous minute veins; it is situated, in its upper part, near the mouth, below the aperture formed by the nostrils into the mouth-an aperture through which, when men, in drinking, inhale any 25of the liquid, this liquid finds its way out through the nostrils. In betwixt the two openings comes the so-called epiglottis, an organ capable of being drawn over and covering the orifice of the windpipe communicating with the mouth; the end of the tongue is attached to the epiglottis. In the other direction the windpipe extends to the interval between the lungs, 30and hereupon bifurcates into each of the two divisions of the lung; for the lung in all animals possessed of the organ has a tendency to be double. In viviparous animals, however, the duplication is not so plainly discernible as in other species, and the duplication is least discernible in man.
The brain in all animals is bloodless, devoid of veins, and naturally cold to the touch; in the great majority of animals it has a small hollow in its centre. The brain-caul around it is reticulated with veins; and this brain-caul is that skin-like membrane which closely surrounds the brain. Above the brain is the 10thinnest and weakest bone of the head, which is termed or 'sinciput'.
From the eye there go three ducts to the brain: the largest and the medium-sized to the cerebellum, the least to the brain itself; and the least is the one situated nearest to the nostril. The two largest ones, then, run side by side and do not meet; the medium-sized ones meet-and this is particularly 15visible in fishes,-for they lie nearer than the large ones to the brain; the smallest pair are the most widely separate from one another, and do not meet.
Inside the neck is what is termed the oesophagus (whose other name is derived oesophagus from its length and narrowness), and the windpipe. The windpipe is situated in front of the oesophagus in all animals that 20have a windpipe, and all animals have one that are furnished with lungs. The windpipe is made up of gristle, is sparingly supplied with blood, and is streaked all round with numerous minute veins; it is situated, in its upper part, near the mouth, below the aperture formed by the nostrils into the mouth-an aperture through which, when men, in drinking, inhale any 25of the liquid, this liquid finds its way out through the nostrils. In betwixt the two openings comes the so-called epiglottis, an organ capable of being drawn over and covering the orifice of the windpipe communicating with the mouth; the end of the tongue is attached to the epiglottis. In the other direction the windpipe extends to the interval between the lungs, 30and hereupon bifurcates into each of the two divisions of the lung; for the lung in all animals possessed of the organ has a tendency to be double. In viviparous animals, however, the duplication is not so plainly discernible as in other species, and the duplication is least discernible in man.
495b
1 δ' ἐν ἀνθρώπῳ. Ἔστι δ' οὐ πολυσχιδὴς ὁ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου,
ὥσπερ ἐνίων ζῳοτόκων, οὐδὲ λεῖος, ἀλλ' ἔχει ἀνωμαλίαν. Ἐν δὲ
τοῖς ᾠοτόκοις, οἷον ὄρνισι καὶ τῶν τετραπόδων ὅσα ᾠοτόκα,
πολὺ τὸ μέρος ἑκάτερον ἀπ' ἀλλήλων ἔσχισται, ὥστε δοκεῖν
5 δύο ἔχειν πλεύμονας· καὶ ἀπὸ μιᾶς δύο ἐστὶ μόρια τῆς
ἀρτηρίας, εἰς ἑκάτερον τὸ μέρος τείνοντα τοῦ πλεύμονος. Συνήρτηται
δὲ καὶ τῇ μεγάλῃ φλεβὶ καὶ τῇ ἀορτῇ καλουμένῃ.
Φυσωμένης δὲ τῆς ἀρτηρίας διαδίδωσιν εἰς τὰ κοῖλα μέρη
τοῦ πλεύμονος τὸ πνεῦμα. Ταῦτα δὲ διαφύσεις ἔχει χονδρώδεις
10 εἰς ὀξὺ συνηκούσας· ἐκ δὲ τῶν διαφύσεων τρήματα
διὰ παντός ἐστι τοῦ πλεύμονος, ἀεὶ ἐκ μειζόνων εἰς ἐλάττω
διαδιδόμενα. Συνήρτηται δὲ καὶ ἡ καρδία τῇ ἀρτηρίᾳ πιμελώδεσι
καὶ χονδρώδεσι καὶ ἰνώδεσι δεσμοῖς· ᾗ δὲ συνήρτηται,
κοῖλόν ἐστιν. Φυσωμένης δὲ τῆς ἀρτηρίας ἐν ἐνίοις
15 μὲν οὐ κατάδηλον ποιεῖ, ἐν δὲ τοῖς μείζοσι τῶν ζῴων δῆλον
ὅτι εἰσέρχεται τὸ πνεῦμα εἰς αὐτήν. Ἡ μὲν οὖν ἀρτηρία
τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον, καὶ δέχεται μόνον τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ
ἀφίησιν, ἄλλο δ' οὐδὲν οὔτε ξηρὸν οὔθ' ὑγρόν, ἢ πόνον παρέχει,
ἕως ἂν ἐκβήξῃ τὸ κατελθόν. Ὁ δὲ στόμαχος ἤρτηται μὲν
20 ἄνωθεν ἀπὸ τοῦ στόματος, ἐχόμενος τῆς ἀρτηρίας, συνεχὴς
ὢν πρός τε τὴν ῥάχιν καὶ τὴν ἀρτηρίαν ὑμενώδεσι δεσμοῖς,
τελευτᾷ δὲ διὰ τοῦ διαζώματος εἰς τὴν κοιλίαν, σαρκοειδὴς
ὢν τὴν φύσιν, καὶ τάσιν ἔχων καὶ ἐπὶ μῆκος καὶ ἐπὶ πλάτος.
Ἡ δὲ κοιλία ἡ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ὁμοία τῇ κυνείᾳ ἐστίν· οὐ
25 πολλῷ γὰρ τοῦ ἐντέρου μείζων, ἀλλ' ἐοικυῖα οἱονεὶ ἐντέρῳ
τινὶ εὖρος ἔχοντι· εἶτα ἔντερον ἁπλοῦν, εἱλιγμένον,
ἐπιεικῶς πλατύ. Ἡ δὲ κάτω κοιλία ὁμοία τῇ ὑείᾳ· πλατεῖά
τε γάρ ἐστι, καὶ τὸ ἀπὸ ταύτης πρὸς τὴν ἕδραν παχὺ
καὶ βραχύ. Τὸ δ' ἐπίπλοον ἀπὸ μέσης τῆς κοιλίας ἤρτηται,
30 ἔστι δὲ τὴν φύσιν ὑμὴν πιμελώδης, ὥσπερ καὶ τοῖς
ἄλλοις τοῖς μονοκοιλίοις καὶ ἀμφώδουσιν. Ὑπὲρ δὲ τῶν ἐντέρων
τὸ μεσεντέριόν ἐστιν· ὑμενῶδες δ' ἐστὶ καὶ τοῦτο καὶ
πλατύ, καὶ πῖον γίνεται. Ἐξήρτηται δ' ἐκ τῆς μεγάλης φλεβὸς
καὶ τῆς ἀορτῆς, καὶ δι' αὐτοῦ φλέβες πολλαὶ καὶ πυκναί,
1And in man the organ is not split into many parts, as is the case with some vivipara, neither is it smooth, but its surface is uneven.
In the case of the ovipara, such as birds and oviparous quadrupeds, the two parts of the organ are separated to a distance from one another, 5so that the creatures appear to be furnished with a pair of lungs; and from the windpipe, itself single, there branch off two separate parts extending to each of the two divisions of the lung. It is attached also to the great vein and to what is designated the 'aorta'. When the windpipe is charged with air, the air passes on to the 10hollow parts of the lung. These parts have divisions, composed of gristle, which meet at an acute angle; from the divisions run passages through the entire lung, giving off smaller and smaller ramifications. The heart also is attached to the windpipe, by connexions of fat, gristle, and sinew; and at the point of juncture there is a hollow. 15When the windpipe is charged with air, the entrance of the air into the heart, though imperceptible in some animals, is perceptible enough in the larger ones. Such are the properties of the windpipe, and it takes in and throws out air only, and takes in nothing else either dry or liquid, or else it causes you pain until you shall have 20coughed up whatever may have gone down.
The oesophagus communicates at the top with the mouth, close to the windpipe, and is attached to the backbone and the windpipe by membranous ligaments, and at last finds its way through the midriff into the belly. It is composed of flesh-like substance, and is elastic both lengthways and breadthways.
The 25stomach of man resembles that of a dog; for it is not much bigger than the bowel, but is somewhat like a bowel of more than usual width; then comes the bowel, single, convoluted, moderately wide. The lower part of the gut is like that of a pig; for it is broad, and the part from it to the buttocks is thick and short. The caul, or great 30omentum, is attached to the middle of the stomach, and consists of a fatty membrane, as is the case with all other animals whose stomachs are single and which have teeth in both jaws.
The mesentery is over the bowels; this also is membranous and broad, and turns to fat.
In the case of the ovipara, such as birds and oviparous quadrupeds, the two parts of the organ are separated to a distance from one another, 5so that the creatures appear to be furnished with a pair of lungs; and from the windpipe, itself single, there branch off two separate parts extending to each of the two divisions of the lung. It is attached also to the great vein and to what is designated the 'aorta'. When the windpipe is charged with air, the air passes on to the 10hollow parts of the lung. These parts have divisions, composed of gristle, which meet at an acute angle; from the divisions run passages through the entire lung, giving off smaller and smaller ramifications. The heart also is attached to the windpipe, by connexions of fat, gristle, and sinew; and at the point of juncture there is a hollow. 15When the windpipe is charged with air, the entrance of the air into the heart, though imperceptible in some animals, is perceptible enough in the larger ones. Such are the properties of the windpipe, and it takes in and throws out air only, and takes in nothing else either dry or liquid, or else it causes you pain until you shall have 20coughed up whatever may have gone down.
The oesophagus communicates at the top with the mouth, close to the windpipe, and is attached to the backbone and the windpipe by membranous ligaments, and at last finds its way through the midriff into the belly. It is composed of flesh-like substance, and is elastic both lengthways and breadthways.
The 25stomach of man resembles that of a dog; for it is not much bigger than the bowel, but is somewhat like a bowel of more than usual width; then comes the bowel, single, convoluted, moderately wide. The lower part of the gut is like that of a pig; for it is broad, and the part from it to the buttocks is thick and short. The caul, or great 30omentum, is attached to the middle of the stomach, and consists of a fatty membrane, as is the case with all other animals whose stomachs are single and which have teeth in both jaws.
The mesentery is over the bowels; this also is membranous and broad, and turns to fat.
496a
1 κατατείνουσαι πρὸς τὴν τῶν ἐντέρων θέσιν, ἄνωθεν
ἀρξάμεναι μέχρι κάτω. Τὰ μὲν οὖν περὶ τὸν στόμαχον καὶ
τὴν ἀρτηρίαν οὕτως ἔχει, καὶ τὰ περὶ τὴν κοιλίαν.
1It is attached to the great vein and the aorta, and there run through it a number of veins closely packed together, extending towards the region of the bowels, beginning above and ending below.
So much for the properties of the oesophagus, the windpipe, and the stomach.
So much for the properties of the oesophagus, the windpipe, and the stomach.
Book 1,Chapter 17 (496a4–497b2)
Ἡ δὲ καρδία ἔχει μὲν τρεῖς κοιλίας, κεῖται δ' ἀνωτέρω
5 τοῦ πλεύμονος κατὰ τὴν σχίσιν τῆς ἀρτηρίας, ἔχει δ' ὑμένα
πιμελώδη καὶ παχύν, ᾗ προσπέφυκε τῇ φλεβὶ τῇ μεγάλῃ
καὶ τῇ ἀορτῇ. Κεῖται δ' ἐπὶ τῇ ἀορτῇ κατὰ τὰ ὀξέα.
Κεῖται δὲ τὰ ὀξέα κατὰ τὸ στῆθος ὁμοίως ἁπάντων τῶν ζῴων,
ὅσα ἔχει στῆθος. Πᾶσι δ' ὁμοίως καὶ τοῖς ἔχουσι καὶ τοῖς μὴ
10 ἔχουσι τοῦτο τὸ μόριον εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν ἔχει ἡ καρδία τὸ ὀξύ·
λάθοι δ' ἂν πολλάκις διὰ τὸ μεταπίπτειν διαιρουμένων. Τὸ
δὲ κυρτὸν αὐτῆς ἐστιν ἄνω. Ἔχει δὲ τὸ ὀξὺ σαρκῶδες ἐπὶ
πολὺ καὶ πυκνόν, καὶ ἐν τοῖς κοίλοις αὐτῆς νεῦρα ἔνεστιν.
Κεῖται δὲ τὴν θέσιν ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἄλλοις κατὰ μέσον τὸ στῆθος,
15 ὅσα ἔχει στῆθος, τοῖς δ' ἀνθρώποις ἐν τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς
μᾶλλον, μικρὸν τῆς διαιρέσεως τῶν μαστῶν ἐγκλίνουσα εἰς
τὸν ἀριστερὸν μαστὸν ἐν τῷ ἄνω μέρει τοῦ στήθους. Καὶ οὔτε μεγάλη,
τό θ' ὅλον αὐτῆς εἶδος οὐ πρόμηκές ἐστιν ἀλλὰ στρογγυλώτερον·
πλὴν τὸ ἄκρον εἰς ὀξὺ συνῆκται. Ἔχει δὲ κοιλίας
20 τρεῖς, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, μεγίστην μὲν τὴν ἐν τοῖς δεξιοῖς,
ἐλαχίστην δὲ τὴν ἐν τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς, μέσην δὲ μεγέθει τὴν
ἀνὰ μέσον· καί εἰσιν εἰς τὸν πλεύμονα τετρημέναι πᾶσαι.
[Ἀμφοτέρας δ' ἔχει τὰς δύο μικράς, καὶ τὸν πλεύμονα
τετρημένας πάσας]. Κατάδηλον δὲ κατὰ μίαν τῶν κοιλιῶν.
25 Κάτωθεν δ' ἐκ τῆς προσφύσεως· κατὰ μὲν τὴν μεγίστην κοιλίαν
ἐξήρτηται τῇ μεγάλῃ φλεβί, πρὸς ἣν καὶ τὸ μεσεντέριόν
ἐστι, κατὰ δὲ τὴν μέσην τῇ ἀορτῇ. Φέρουσι δὲ καὶ εἰς τὸν
πλεύμονα πόροι ἀπὸ τῆς καρδίας, καὶ σχίζονται τὸν αὐτὸν
τρόπον ὅνπερ ἡ ἀρτηρία, κατὰ πάντα τὸν πλεύμονα παρακολουθοῦντες
30 τοῖς ἀπὸ τῆς ἀρτηρίας. Ἐπάνω δ' εἰσὶν οἱ
ἀπὸ τῆς καρδίας· πόρος δ' οὐδείς ἐστι κοινός, ἀλλὰ διὰ τὴν
σύναψιν δέχονται τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ τῇ καρδίᾳ διαπέμπουσιν·
φέρει γὰρ ὁ μὲν εἰς τὸ δεξιὸν κοῖλον τῶν πόρων, ὁ δ' εἰς
τὸ ἀριστερόν. Περὶ δὲ τῆς φλεβὸς τῆς μεγάλης καὶ τῆς ἀορτῆς
35 κατ' αὐτὰς κοινῇ περὶ ἀμφοτέρων ἐροῦμεν ὕστερον. Αἷμα
The heart has three cavities, and is situated 5above the lung at the division of the windpipe, and is provided with a fatty and thick membrane where it fastens on to the great vein and the aorta. It lies with its tapering portion upon the aorta, and this portion is similarly situated in relation to the chest in all animals that have a chest. In all animals alike, in those that have a chest and in those that have none, the apex of the heart points 10forwards, although this fact might possibly escape notice by a change of position under dissection. The rounded end of the heart is at the top. The apex is to a great extent fleshy and close in texture, and in the cavities of the heart are sinews. As a rule the heart is situated in the middle of the chest in animals that have a chest, and in man it is situated a little to the left-hand side, leaning 15a little way from the division of the breasts towards the left breast in the upper part of the chest.
The heart is not large, and in its general shape it is not elongated; in fact, it is somewhat round in form: only, be it remembered, it is sharp-pointed at the bottom. It has three cavities, as has been said: the right-hand one the largest of the three, the left-hand one the least, and the middle 20one intermediate in size. All these cavities, even the two small ones, are connected by passages with the lung, and this fact is rendered quite plain in one of the cavities. And below, at the point of attachment, in the largest cavity there is a connexion with the great vein (near which the mesentery lies); and in the middle one there is a connexion with the aorta.
Canals lead from the heart into 25the lung, and branch off just as the windpipe does, running all over the lung parallel with the passages from the windpipe. The canals from the heart are uppermost; and there is no common passage, but the passages through their having a common wall receive the breath and pass it on to the heart; and one of the passages conveys it to the right cavity, and the other to the left.
With regard to the 30great vein and the aorta we shall, by and by, treat of them together in a discussion devoted to them and to them alone. In all animals that are furnished with a lung, and that are both internally and externally viviparous, the lung is of all organs the most richly supplied with blood; for the lung is throughout spongy in texture, and along by every single pore in it go branches from the great vein.
The heart is not large, and in its general shape it is not elongated; in fact, it is somewhat round in form: only, be it remembered, it is sharp-pointed at the bottom. It has three cavities, as has been said: the right-hand one the largest of the three, the left-hand one the least, and the middle 20one intermediate in size. All these cavities, even the two small ones, are connected by passages with the lung, and this fact is rendered quite plain in one of the cavities. And below, at the point of attachment, in the largest cavity there is a connexion with the great vein (near which the mesentery lies); and in the middle one there is a connexion with the aorta.
Canals lead from the heart into 25the lung, and branch off just as the windpipe does, running all over the lung parallel with the passages from the windpipe. The canals from the heart are uppermost; and there is no common passage, but the passages through their having a common wall receive the breath and pass it on to the heart; and one of the passages conveys it to the right cavity, and the other to the left.
With regard to the 30great vein and the aorta we shall, by and by, treat of them together in a discussion devoted to them and to them alone. In all animals that are furnished with a lung, and that are both internally and externally viviparous, the lung is of all organs the most richly supplied with blood; for the lung is throughout spongy in texture, and along by every single pore in it go branches from the great vein.
496b
1 δὲ πλεῖστον μὲν ὁ πλεύμων ἔχει τῶν ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις μορίων
τοῖς ἔχουσί τε πλεύμονα καὶ ζῳοτοκοῦσιν ἐν αὑτοῖς τε
καὶ ἐκτός· ἅπας μὲν γάρ ἐστι σομφός, παρ' ἑκάστην δὲ τὴν
σύριγγα πόροι Φέρουσι τῆς μεγάλης Φλεβός. Ἀλλ' οἱ νομίζοντες
5 εἶναι κενὸν διηπάτηνται, θεωροῦντες τοὺς ἐξῃρημένους ἐκ τῶν
διαιρουμένων τῶν ζῴων, ὧν εὐθὺς ἐξελήλυθε τὸ αἷμα ἀθρόον.
Τῶν δ' ἄλλων σπλάγχνων ἡ καρδία μόνον ἔχει αἷμα. Καὶ
ὁ μὲν πλεύμων οὐκ ἐν αὑτῷ ἀλλ' ἐν ταῖς φλεψίν, ἡ δὲ
καρδία ἐν αὑτῇ· ἐν ἑκάστῃ γὰρ ἔχει αἷμα τῶν κοιλιῶν,
10 λεπτότατον δ' ἐστὶ τὸ ἐν τῇ μέσῃ. Ὑπὸ δὲ τὸν πλεύμονά ἐστι
τὸ διάζωμα τὸ τοῦ θώρακος, αἱ καλούμεναι φρένες, πρὸς
μὲν τὰ πλευρὰ καὶ τὰ ὑποχόνδρια καὶ τὴν ῥάχιν συνηρτημέναι,
ἐν μέσῳ δ' ἔχει τὰ λεπτὰ καὶ ὑμενώδη. Ἔχει
δὲ δι' αὑτοῦ καὶ φλέβας τεταμένας· εἰσὶ δ' αἱ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου
15 φρένες παχεῖαι ὡς κατὰ λόγον τοῦ σώματος. Ὑπὸ δὲ τὸ
διάζωμα ἐν μὲν τοῖς δεξιοῖς κεῖται τὸ ἧπαρ, ἐν δὲ τοῖς
ἀριστεροῖς ὁ σπλήν, ὁμοίως ἐν ἅπασι τοῖς ἔχουσι ταῦτα τὰ
μόρια κατὰ φύσιν καὶ μὴ τερατωδῶς· ἤδη γὰρ ὦπται
μετηλλαχότα τὴν τάξιν ἔν τισι τῶν τετραπόδων. Συνήρτηται
20 δὲ τῇ κοιλίᾳ κατὰ τὸ ἐπίπλοον. Τὴν δ' ὄψιν ἐστὶν ὁ τοῦ
ἀνθρώπου σπλὴν στενὸς καὶ μακρός, ὅμοιος τῷ ὑείῳ. Τὸ δ'
ἧπαρ ὡς μὲν ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ καὶ ἐν τοῖς πλείστοις ἔχει χολήν,
ἐπ' ἐνίοις δ' οὐκ ἔπεστιν. Στρογγύλον δ' ἐστὶ τὸ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου
ἧπαρ καὶ ὅμοιον τῷ βοείῳ. Συμβαίνει δὲ τοῦτο καὶ
25 ἐν τοῖς ἱερείοις, οἷον ἐν μὲν τόπῳ τινὶ τῆς ἐν Εὐβοίᾳ Χαλκιδικῆς
οὐκ ἔχει τὰ πρόβατα χολήν, ἐν δὲ Νάξῳ πάντα
σχεδὸν τὰ τετράποδα τοσαύτην ὥστ' ἐκπλήττεσθαι τοὺς θύοντας
τῶν ξένων, οἰομένους αὑτῶν ἴδιον εἶναι τὸ σημεῖον,
ἀλλ' οὐ φύσιν αὐτῶν εἶναι ταύτην. Προσπέφυκε δὲ τῇ μεγάλῃ
30 φλεβὶ τὸ ἧπαρ, τῇ δ' ἀορτῇ οὐ κοινωνεῖ· διὰ γὰρ τοῦ
ἥπατος διέχει ἡ ἀπὸ τῆς μεγάλης φλεβὸς φλέψ, ᾗ αἱ
καλούμεναι πύλαι εἰσὶ τοῦ ἥπατος. Συνήρτηται δὲ καὶ ὁ
σπλὴν τῇ μεγάλῃ φλεβὶ μόνον· τείνει γὰρ ἀπ' αὐτῆς φλὲψ
εἰς τὸν σπλῆνα. Μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα οἱ νεφροὶ πρὸς αὐτῇ τῇ
35 ῥάχει κεῖνται, ὅμοιοι τὴν φύσιν ὄντες τοῖς βοείοις. Ἀνώτερος
1Those who imagine it to be empty are altogether mistaken; and they are led into their error by their observation of lungs removed from animals under dissection, out of which organs the blood had all escaped immediately after death.
Of the other internal organs the heart alone contains blood. 5And the lung has blood not in itself but in its veins, but the heart has blood in itself; for in each of its three cavities it has blood, but the thinnest blood is what it has in its central cavity.
Under the lung comes the thoracic diaphragm or midriff, attached to the ribs, the hypochondria and the backbone, with a thin membrane in the middle of it. It has veins 10running through it; and the diaphragm in the case of man is thicker in proportion to the size of his frame than in other animals.
Under the diaphragm on the right-hand side lies the 'liver', and on the left-hand side the 'spleen', alike in all animals that are provided with these organs in an ordinary and not preternatural way; for, be it observed, in some quadrupeds 15these organs have been found in a transposed position. These organs are connected with the stomach by the caul.
To outward view the spleen of man is narrow and long, resembling the self-same organ in the pig. The liver in the great majority of animals is not provided with a 'gall-bladder'; but the latter is present in some. The liver of a man is round-shaped, and resembles 20the same organ in the ox. And, by the way, the absence above referred to of a gall-bladder is at times met with in the practice of augury. For instance, in a certain district of the Chalcidic settlement in Euboea the sheep are devoid of gall-bladders; and in Naxos nearly all the quadrupeds have one so large that foreigners when they offer sacrifice with such 25victims are bewildered with fright, under the impression that the phenomenon is not due to natural causes, but bodes some mischief to the individual offerers of the sacrifice.
Again, the liver is attached to the great vein, but it has no communication with the aorta; for the vein that goes off from the great vein goes right through the liver, at a point where are the 30so-called 'portals' of the liver. The spleen also is connected only with the great vein, for a vein extends to the spleen off from it.
After these organs come the 'kidneys', and these are placed close to the backbone, and resemble in character the same organ in kine. In all animals that are provided with this organ, the right kidney is situated higher up than the other.
Of the other internal organs the heart alone contains blood. 5And the lung has blood not in itself but in its veins, but the heart has blood in itself; for in each of its three cavities it has blood, but the thinnest blood is what it has in its central cavity.
Under the lung comes the thoracic diaphragm or midriff, attached to the ribs, the hypochondria and the backbone, with a thin membrane in the middle of it. It has veins 10running through it; and the diaphragm in the case of man is thicker in proportion to the size of his frame than in other animals.
Under the diaphragm on the right-hand side lies the 'liver', and on the left-hand side the 'spleen', alike in all animals that are provided with these organs in an ordinary and not preternatural way; for, be it observed, in some quadrupeds 15these organs have been found in a transposed position. These organs are connected with the stomach by the caul.
To outward view the spleen of man is narrow and long, resembling the self-same organ in the pig. The liver in the great majority of animals is not provided with a 'gall-bladder'; but the latter is present in some. The liver of a man is round-shaped, and resembles 20the same organ in the ox. And, by the way, the absence above referred to of a gall-bladder is at times met with in the practice of augury. For instance, in a certain district of the Chalcidic settlement in Euboea the sheep are devoid of gall-bladders; and in Naxos nearly all the quadrupeds have one so large that foreigners when they offer sacrifice with such 25victims are bewildered with fright, under the impression that the phenomenon is not due to natural causes, but bodes some mischief to the individual offerers of the sacrifice.
Again, the liver is attached to the great vein, but it has no communication with the aorta; for the vein that goes off from the great vein goes right through the liver, at a point where are the 30so-called 'portals' of the liver. The spleen also is connected only with the great vein, for a vein extends to the spleen off from it.
After these organs come the 'kidneys', and these are placed close to the backbone, and resemble in character the same organ in kine. In all animals that are provided with this organ, the right kidney is situated higher up than the other.
497a
1 δ' ὁ δεξιός ἐστιν ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς ζῴοις τοῖς ἔχουσι
νεφρούς· καὶ ἐλάττω δὲ πιμελὴν ἔχει τοῦ ἀριστεροῦ καὶ αὐχμηρότερος
ὁ δεξιός. Ἐν πᾶσι δ' ἔχει ὁμοίως τοῖς ἄλλοις
καὶ τοῦτο. Φέρουσι δ' εἰς αὐτοὺς πόροι ἔκ τε τῆς μεγάλης
5 φλεβὸς καὶ τῆς ἀορτῆς, πλὴν οὐκ εἰς τὸ κοῖλον. Ἔχουσι
γὰρ οἱ νεφροὶ ἐν μέσῳ κοῖλον, οἱ μὲν μεῖζον οἱ δ' ἔλαττον,
πλὴν οἱ τῆς φώκης· οὗτοι δ' ὅμοιοι τοῖς βοείοις ὄντες
στερεώτατοι πάντων εἰσίν. Οἱ δὲ πόροι οἱ τείνοντες εἰς αὐτοὺς
εἰς τὸ σῶμα καταναλίσκονται τῶν νεφρῶν· σημεῖον δ' ὅτι
10 οὐ περαίνουσι τὸ μὴ ἔχειν αἷμα μηδὲ πήγνυσθαι ἐν αὐτοῖς.
Ἔχουσι δὲ κοιλίαν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, μικράν. Ἐκ δὲ τοῦ κοίλου
τῶν νεφρῶν φέρουσιν εἰς τὴν κύστιν πόροι δύο νεανικοί, καὶ
ἄλλοι ἐκ τῆς ἀορτῆς ἰσχυροὶ καὶ συνεχεῖς. Ἐκ μέσου δὲ
τῶν νεφρῶν ἑκατέρου φλὲψ κοίλη καὶ νευρώδης ἐξήρτηται,
15 τείνουσα παρ' αὐτὴν τὴν ῥάχιν διὰ τῶν στενῶν· εἶτα εἰς ἑκάτερον
τὸ ἰσχίον ἀφανίζονται, καὶ πάλιν δῆλαι γίνονται
τεταμέναι πρὸς τὸ ἰσχίον. Αὗται δ' αἱ ἀποτομαὶ τῶν φλεβίων
εἰς τὴν κύστιν καθήκουσιν. Τελευταία γὰρ ἡ κύστις κεῖται,
τὴν μὲν ἐξάρτησιν ἔχουσα τοῖς ἀπὸ τῶν νεφρῶν τεταμένοις
20 πόροις παρὰ τὸν καυλὸν τὸν ἐπὶ τὴν οὐρήθραν τείνοντα,
καὶ σχεδὸν πάντῃ κύκλῳ λεπτοῖς καὶ ἰνώδεσιν ὑμενίοις
ἐστὶ προσειλημμένη, παραπλησίοις οὖσι τρόπον τινὰ τῷ
διαζώματι τοῦ θώρακος. Ἔστι δ' ἡ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου κύστις ἐπιεικῶς
ἔχουσα μέγεθος. Πρὸς δὲ τὸν καυλὸν τὸν τῆς κύστεως
25 συνήρτηται τὸ αἰδοῖον, τὸ μὲν ἐξωτάτω τρῆμα συνερρωγὸς
εἰς ταὐτό, μικρὸν δ' ὑποκάτω. Τὸ μὲν οὖν εἰς τοὺς ὄρχεις
φέρει τῶν τρημάτων, τὸ δ' εἰς τὴν κύστιν, νευρῶδες καὶ
χονδρῶδες ὄν. Τοῦτον δ' ἐξήρτηνται οἱ ὄρχεις τοῖς ἄρρεσι,
περὶ ὧν ἐν τοῖς κοινῇ λεγομένοις διορισθήσεται πῶς ἔχουσιν.
30 Τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ἐν τῷ θήλει πάντα πέφυκεν·
διαφέρει γὰρ οὐδενὶ τῶν ἔσω πλὴν ταῖς ὑστέραις, ὧν ἡ μὲν
ὄψις θεωρείσθω ἐκ τῆς διαγραφῆς τῆς ἐν ταῖς ἀνατομαῖς,
ἡ δὲ θέσις ἐστὶν ἐπὶ τοῖς ἐντέροις· ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς ὑστέρας ἡ κύστις.
Λεκτέον δὲ καὶ περὶ ὑστερῶν κοινῇ πασῶν ἐν τοῖς ἑπομένοις·
35 οὔτε γὰρ ὅμοιαι πᾶσιν οὔθ' ὁμοίως ἔχουσιν.
1It has also less fatty substance than the left-hand one and is less moist. And this phenomenon also is observable in all the other animals alike.
Furthermore, passages or ducts lead into the kidneys both from the great vein and from the aorta, only not into the cavity. For, by the way, there is a 5cavity in the middle of the kidney, bigger in some creatures and less in others; but there is none in the case of the seal. This latter animal has kidneys resembling in shape the identical organ in kine, but in its case the organs are more solid than in any other known creature. The ducts that lead into the kidneys lose themselves in the substance of the kidneys themselves; 10and the proof that they extend no farther rests on the fact that they contain no blood, nor is any clot found therein. The kidneys, however, have, as has been said, a small cavity. From this cavity in the kidney there lead two considerable ducts or ureters into the bladder; and others spring from the aorta, strong and continuous. And to the middle of each of the two kidneys 15is attached a hollow sinewy vein, stretching right along the spine through the narrows; by and by these veins are lost in either loin, and again become visible extending to the flank. And these off-branchings of the veins terminate in the bladder. For the bladder lies at the extremity, and is held in position by the ducts stretching from the kidneys, along the stalk that 20extends to the urethra; and pretty well all round it is fastened by fine sinewy membranes, that resemble to some extent the thoracic diaphragm. The bladder in man is, proportionately to his size, tolerably large.
To the stalk of the bladder the private part is attached, the external orifices coalescing; but a little lower down, one of the openings communicates with the 25testicles and the other with the bladder. The penis is gristly and sinewy in its texture. With it are connected the testicles in male animals, and the properties of these organs we shall discuss in our general account of the said organ.
All these organs are similar in the female; for there is no difference in regard to the internal organs, except in respect to the womb, and 30with reference to the appearance of this organ I must refer the reader to diagrams in my 'Anatomy'. The womb, however, is situated over the bowel, and the bladder lies over the womb. But we must treat by and by in our pages of the womb of all female animals viewed generally. For the wombs of all female animals are not identical, neither do their local dispositions coincide.
Furthermore, passages or ducts lead into the kidneys both from the great vein and from the aorta, only not into the cavity. For, by the way, there is a 5cavity in the middle of the kidney, bigger in some creatures and less in others; but there is none in the case of the seal. This latter animal has kidneys resembling in shape the identical organ in kine, but in its case the organs are more solid than in any other known creature. The ducts that lead into the kidneys lose themselves in the substance of the kidneys themselves; 10and the proof that they extend no farther rests on the fact that they contain no blood, nor is any clot found therein. The kidneys, however, have, as has been said, a small cavity. From this cavity in the kidney there lead two considerable ducts or ureters into the bladder; and others spring from the aorta, strong and continuous. And to the middle of each of the two kidneys 15is attached a hollow sinewy vein, stretching right along the spine through the narrows; by and by these veins are lost in either loin, and again become visible extending to the flank. And these off-branchings of the veins terminate in the bladder. For the bladder lies at the extremity, and is held in position by the ducts stretching from the kidneys, along the stalk that 20extends to the urethra; and pretty well all round it is fastened by fine sinewy membranes, that resemble to some extent the thoracic diaphragm. The bladder in man is, proportionately to his size, tolerably large.
To the stalk of the bladder the private part is attached, the external orifices coalescing; but a little lower down, one of the openings communicates with the 25testicles and the other with the bladder. The penis is gristly and sinewy in its texture. With it are connected the testicles in male animals, and the properties of these organs we shall discuss in our general account of the said organ.
All these organs are similar in the female; for there is no difference in regard to the internal organs, except in respect to the womb, and 30with reference to the appearance of this organ I must refer the reader to diagrams in my 'Anatomy'. The womb, however, is situated over the bowel, and the bladder lies over the womb. But we must treat by and by in our pages of the womb of all female animals viewed generally. For the wombs of all female animals are not identical, neither do their local dispositions coincide.
497b
1 Τὰ μὲν οὖν μόρια καὶ τὰ ἐντὸς καὶ τὰ ἐκτὸς τοῦ ἀνθρώπου
ταῦτα καὶ τοιαῦτα, καὶ τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον.
1These are the organs, internal and external, of man, and such is their nature and such their local disposition.
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