Fobes (1919) · Webster (1923)
Webster (1923)
Greek line numbers are exact. The translations carry no Bekker numbers of their own, so those beside the English are aligned to the Greek: upright = fixed (anchored to this point in the text), italic grey = approximate (interpolated estimate).
Book 2,Chapter 1 (353a32–354a34)
353a
Περὶ δὲ θαλάττης, καὶ τίς ἡ φύσις αὐτῆς, καὶ διὰ
τίν' αἰτίαν ἁλμυρὸν τοσοῦτόν ἐστιν ὕδατος πλῆθος, ἔτι δὲ περὶ
τῆς ἐξ ἀρχῆς γενέσεως λέγωμεν. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἀρχαῖοι καὶ
35 διατρίβοντες περὶ τὰς θεολογίας ποιοῦσιν αὐτῆς πηγάς, ἵν'
32Let us explain the nature of the sea and the reason why such a large mass of water is salt and the way in which it originally came to be.
The old writers 35who invented theogonies say that the sea has springs, for they want earth and sea to have foundations and roots of their own.
The old writers 35who invented theogonies say that the sea has springs, for they want earth and sea to have foundations and roots of their own.
353b
1 αὐτοῖς ὦσιν ἀρχαὶ καὶ ῥίζαι γῆς καὶ θαλάττης· τραγικώτερον
γὰρ οὕτω καὶ σεμνότερον ὑπέλαβον ἴσως εἶναι τὸ λεγόμενον,
ὡς μέγα τι τοῦ παντὸς τοῦτο μόριον ὄν· καὶ τὸν
λοιπὸν οὐρανὸν ὅλον περὶ τοῦτον συνεστάναι τὸν τόπον καὶ τούτου
5 χάριν ὡς ὄντα τιμιώτατον καὶ ἀρχήν. οἱ δὲ σοφώτεροι τὴν
ἀνθρωπίνην σοφίαν ποιοῦσιν αὐτῆς γένεσιν· εἶναι γὰρ τὸ πρῶτον
ὑγρὸν ἅπαντα τὸν περὶ τὴν γῆν τόπον, ὑπὸ δὲ τοῦ ἡλίου
ξηραινόμενον τὸ μὲν διατμίσαν πνεύματα καὶ τροπὰς ἡλίου
καὶ σελήνης φασὶ ποιεῖν, τὸ δὲ λειφθὲν θάλατταν εἶναι· διὸ
10 καὶ ἐλάττω γίγνεσθαι ξηραινομένην οἴονται, καὶ τέλος ἔσεσθαί
ποτε πᾶσαν ξηράν. ἔνιοι δ' αὐτῶν θερμαινομένης φασὶν
ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου τῆς γῆς οἷον ἱδρῶτα γίγνεσθαι· διὸ καὶ
ἁλμυρὰν εἶναι· καὶ γὰρ ὁ ἱδρὼς ἁλμυρός. οἱ δὲ τῆς ἁλμυρότητος
αἰτίαν τὴν γῆν εἶναί φασιν· καθάπερ γὰρ τὸ διὰ
15 τῆς τέφρας ἠθούμενον ἁλμυρὸν γίγνεται, τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον
καὶ ταύτην ἁλμυρὰν εἶναι μειχθείσης αὐτῇ τοιαύτης γῆς.
ὅτι μὲν οὖν πηγὰς τῆς θαλάττης ἀδύνατον εἶναι, διὰ τῶν ὑπαρχόντων
ἤδη θεωρεῖν δεῖ. τῶν γὰρ περὶ τὴν γῆν ὑδάτων τὰ
μὲν ῥυτὰ τυγχάνει ὄντα τὰ δὲ στάσιμα. τὰ μὲν οὖν ῥυτὰ
20 πάντα πηγαῖα· περὶ δὲ τῶν πηγῶν εἰρήκαμεν πρότερον ὅτι
δεῖ νοεῖν οὐχ ὥσπερ ἐξ ἀγγείου ταμιευόμενον τὴν ἀρχὴν
εἶναι πηγήν, ἀλλ' εἰς ἓν ἀεὶ γιγνόμενον καὶ συρρέον ἀπαντᾶν
πρώτην. τῶν δὲ στασίμων τὰ μὲν συλλογιμαῖα καὶ ὑποστάσεις,
οἷον τὰ τελματιαῖα καὶ ὅσα λιμνώδη, πλήθει καὶ
25 ὀλιγότητι διαφέροντα, τὰ δὲ πηγαῖα. ταῦτα δὲ πάντα χειρόκμητα,
λέγω δ' οἷον τὰ φρεατιαῖα καλούμενα· πάντων
γὰρ ἀνωτέρω δεῖ τὴν πηγὴν εἶναι τῆς ῥύσεως. διὸ τὰ μὲν
αὐτόματα ῥεῖ τὰ κρηναῖα καὶ ποτάμια, ταῦτα δὲ τέχνης
προσδεῖται τῆς ἐργασομένης. αἱ μὲν οὖν διαφοραὶ τοσαῦται
30 καὶ τοιαῦται τῶν ὑδάτων εἰσίν· τούτων δ' οὕτω διωρισμένων
ἀδύνατον πηγὰς εἶναι τῆς θαλάττης· ἐν οὐδετέρῳ
γὰρ τούτων οἷόν τ' εἶναι τῶν γενῶν αὐτήν· οὔτε γὰρ ἀπόρρυτός
ἐστιν οὔτε χειροποίητος, τὰ δὲ πηγαῖα πάντα τούτων θάτερον
πέπονθεν· αὐτόματον δὲ στάσιμον τοσοῦτον πλῆθος οὐδὲν
35 ὁρῶμεν πηγαῖον γιγνόμενον. ἔτι δ' ἐπεὶ πλείους εἰσὶ θάλατται
1Presumably they thought that this view was grander and more impressive as implying that our earth was an important part of the universe. For they believed that the whole world had been built up round our earth 5and for its sake, and that the earth was the most important and primary part of it. Others, wiser in human knowledge, give an account of its origin. At first, they say, the earth was surrounded by moisture. Then the sun began to dry it up, part of it evaporated and is the cause of winds and the turnings back of the sun and the moon, while the remainder forms the sea. So 10the sea is being dried up and is growing less, and will end by being some day entirely dried up. Others say that the sea is a kind of sweat exuded by the earth when the sun heats it, and that this explains its saltness: for all sweat is salt. Others say that the saltness is due to the earth. Just as water 15strained through ashes becomes salt, so the sea owes its saltness to the admixture of earth with similar properties.
We must now consider the facts which prove that the sea cannot possibly have springs. The waters we find on the earth either flow or are stationary. All flowing water 20has springs. (By a spring, as we have explained above, we must not understand a source from which waters are ladled as it were from a vessel, but a first point at which the water which is continually forming and percolating gathers.) Stationary water is either that which has collected and has been left standing, marshy pools, for instance, and lakes, which differ merely in 25size, or else it comes from springs. In this case it is always artificial, I mean as in the case of wells, otherwise the spring would have to be above the outlet. Hence the water from fountains and rivers flows of itself, whereas wells need to be worked artificially. All the waters that exist belong to one or other of these classes.
30On the basis of this division we can sec that the sea cannot have springs. For it falls under neither of the two classes; it does not flow and it is not artificial; whereas all water from springs must belong to one or other of them. Natural standing water from springs is never 35found on such a large scale.
We must now consider the facts which prove that the sea cannot possibly have springs. The waters we find on the earth either flow or are stationary. All flowing water 20has springs. (By a spring, as we have explained above, we must not understand a source from which waters are ladled as it were from a vessel, but a first point at which the water which is continually forming and percolating gathers.) Stationary water is either that which has collected and has been left standing, marshy pools, for instance, and lakes, which differ merely in 25size, or else it comes from springs. In this case it is always artificial, I mean as in the case of wells, otherwise the spring would have to be above the outlet. Hence the water from fountains and rivers flows of itself, whereas wells need to be worked artificially. All the waters that exist belong to one or other of these classes.
30On the basis of this division we can sec that the sea cannot have springs. For it falls under neither of the two classes; it does not flow and it is not artificial; whereas all water from springs must belong to one or other of them. Natural standing water from springs is never 35found on such a large scale.
354a
1 πρὸς ἀλλήλας οὐ συμμειγνύουσαι κατ' οὐδένα τόπον, ὧν ἡ
μὲν ἐρυθρὰ φαίνεται κατὰ μικρὸν κοινωνοῦσα πρὸς τὴν ἔξω
στηλῶν θάλατταν, ἡ δ' Ὑρκανία καὶ Κασπία κεχωρισμέναι
τε ταύτης καὶ περιοικούμεναι κύκλῳ, ὥστ' οὐκ ἂν ἐλάνθανον
5 αἱ πηγαί, εἰ κατά τινα τόπον αὐτῶν ἦσαν. ῥέουσα δ' ἡ θάλαττα
φαίνεται κατά τε τὰς στενότητας, εἴ που διὰ τὴν περιέχουσαν
γῆν εἰς μικρὸν ἐκ μεγάλου συνάγεται πελάγους, διὰ
τὸ ταλαντεύεσθαι δεῦρο κἀκεῖσε πολλάκις. τοῦτο δ' ἐν μὲν
πολλῷ πλήθει θαλάττης ἄδηλον· ᾗ δὲ διὰ τὴν στενότητα
10 τῆς γῆς ὀλίγον ἐπέχει τόπον, ἀναγκαῖον τὴν ἐν τῷ πελάγει
μικρὰν ταλάντωσιν ἐκεῖ φαίνεσθαι μεγάλην. ἡ δ' ἐντὸς
Ἡρακλείων στηλῶν ἅπασα κατὰ τὴν τῆς γῆς κοιλότητα ῥεῖ,
καὶ τῶν ποταμῶν τὸ πλῆθος· ἡ μὲν γὰρ Μαιῶτις εἰς τὸν
Πόντον ῥεῖ, οὗτος δ' εἰς τὸν Αἰγαῖον. τὰ δ' ἤδη τούτων
15 ἔξω πελάγη ἧττον ποιεῖ τοῦτ' ἐπιδήλως. ἐκείνοις δὲ διά τε
τὸ τῶν ποταμῶν πλῆθος συμβαίνει τοῦτο (πλείους γὰρ εἰς
τὸν Εὔξεινον ῥέουσιν ποταμοὶ καὶ τὴν Μαιῶτιν ἢ τὴν πολλαπλασίαν
χώραν αὐτῆς) καὶ διὰ τὴν βραχύτητα τοῦ βάθους·
ἀεὶ γὰρ ἔτι βαθυτέρα φαίνεται οὖσα ἡ θάλαττα, καὶ τῆς
20 μὲν Μαιώτιδος ὁ Πόντος, τούτου δ' ὁ Αἰγαῖος, τοῦ δ' Αἰγαίου
ὁ Σικελικός· ὁ δὲ Σαρδονικὸς καὶ Τυρρηνικὸς βαθύτατοι
πάντων. τὰ δ' ἔξω στηλῶν βραχέα μὲν διὰ τὸν πηλόν, ἄπνοα
δ' ἐστὶν ὡς ἐν κοίλῳ τῆς θαλάττης οὔσης. ὥσπερ οὖν καὶ κατὰ
μέρος ἐκ τῶν ὑψηλῶν οἱ ποταμοὶ φαίνονται ῥέοντες, οὕτω
25 καὶ τῆς ὅλης γῆς ἐκ τῶν ὑψηλοτέρων τῶν πρὸς ἄρκτον τὸ
ῥεῦμα γίγνεται τὸ πλεῖστον· ὥστε τὰ μὲν διὰ τὴν ἔκχυσιν οὐ
βαθέα, τὰ δ' ἔξω πελάγη βαθέα μᾶλλον. περὶ δὲ τοῦ τὰ
πρὸς ἄρκτον εἶναι τῆς γῆς ὑψηλὰ σημεῖόν τι καὶ τὸ πολλοὺς
πεισθῆναι τῶν ἀρχαίων μετεωρολόγων τὸν ἥλιον μὴ φέρεσθαι
30 ὑπὸ γῆν ἀλλὰ περὶ τὴν γῆν καὶ τὸν τόπον τοῦτον,
ἀφανίζεσθαι δὲ καὶ ποιεῖν νύκτα διὰ τὸ ὑψηλὴν εἶναι πρὸς
ἄρκτον τὴν γῆν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν οὔτε πηγὰς οἷόν τ' εἶναι τῆς θαλάττης,
καὶ διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν οὕτως φαίνεται ῥέουσα, τοιαῦτα
καὶ τοσαῦθ' ἡμῖν εἰρήσθω.
1Again, there are several seas that have no communication with one another at all. The Red Sea, for instance, communicates but slightly with the ocean outside the straits, and the Hyrcanian and Caspian seas are distinct from this ocean and people dwell all round them. Hence, 5if these seas had had any springs anywhere they must have been discovered.
It is true that in straits, where the land on either side contracts an open sea into a small space, the sea appears to flow. But this is because it is swinging to and fro. In the open sea this motion is not observed, but where the land narrows 10and contracts the sea the motion that was imperceptible in the open necessarily strikes the attention.
The whole of the Mediterranean does actually flow. The direction of this flow is determined by the depth of the basins and by the number of rivers. Maeotis flows into Pontus and Pontus into the Aegean. After that the flow of the remaining 15seas is not so easy to observe. The current of Maeotis and Pontus is due to the number of rivers (more rivers flow into the Euxine and Maeotis than into the whole Mediterranean with its much larger basin), and to their own shallowness. For we find the sea getting deeper and deeper. 20Pontus is deeper than Maeotis, the Aegean than Pontus, the Sicilian sea than the Aegean; the Sardinian and Tyrrhenic being the deepest of all. (Outside the pillars of Heracles the sea is shallow owing to the mud, but calm, for it lies in a hollow.) We see, then, that just as single rivers flow from mountains, so 25it is with the earth as a whole: the greatest volume of water flows from the higher regions in the north. Their alluvium makes the northern seas shallow, while the outer seas are deeper. Some further evidence of the height of the northern regions of the earth is afforded by the view of many of the ancient meteorologists. They believed that the sun did not pass 30below the earth, but round its northern part, and that it was the height of this which obscured the sun and caused night.
So much to prove that there cannot be sources of the sea and to explain its observed flow.
It is true that in straits, where the land on either side contracts an open sea into a small space, the sea appears to flow. But this is because it is swinging to and fro. In the open sea this motion is not observed, but where the land narrows 10and contracts the sea the motion that was imperceptible in the open necessarily strikes the attention.
The whole of the Mediterranean does actually flow. The direction of this flow is determined by the depth of the basins and by the number of rivers. Maeotis flows into Pontus and Pontus into the Aegean. After that the flow of the remaining 15seas is not so easy to observe. The current of Maeotis and Pontus is due to the number of rivers (more rivers flow into the Euxine and Maeotis than into the whole Mediterranean with its much larger basin), and to their own shallowness. For we find the sea getting deeper and deeper. 20Pontus is deeper than Maeotis, the Aegean than Pontus, the Sicilian sea than the Aegean; the Sardinian and Tyrrhenic being the deepest of all. (Outside the pillars of Heracles the sea is shallow owing to the mud, but calm, for it lies in a hollow.) We see, then, that just as single rivers flow from mountains, so 25it is with the earth as a whole: the greatest volume of water flows from the higher regions in the north. Their alluvium makes the northern seas shallow, while the outer seas are deeper. Some further evidence of the height of the northern regions of the earth is afforded by the view of many of the ancient meteorologists. They believed that the sun did not pass 30below the earth, but round its northern part, and that it was the height of this which obscured the sun and caused night.
So much to prove that there cannot be sources of the sea and to explain its observed flow.
Book 2,Chapter 2 (354b1–356b3)
354b
1 περὶ δὲ τῆς γενέσεως αὐτῆς, εἰ γέγονε, καὶ τοῦ χυμοῦ,
τίς ἡ αἰτία τῆς ἁλμυρότητος καὶ πικρότητος, λεκτέον. ἡ
μὲν οὖν αἰτία ἡ ποιήσασα τοὺς πρότερον οἴεσθαι τὴν θάλατταν
ἀρχὴν εἶναι καὶ σῶμα τοῦ παντὸς ὕδατος ἥδ' ἐστίν· δόξειε
5 γὰρ ἂν εὔλογον εἶναι, καθάπερ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων στοιχείων
ἐστὶν ἠθροισμένος ὄγκος καὶ ἀρχὴ διὰ τὸ πλῆθος, ὅθεν μεταβάλλει
τε μεριζόμενον καὶ μείγνυται τοῖς ἄλλοις—οἷον πυρὸς
μὲν ἐν τοῖς ἄνω τόποις, ἀέρος δὲ πλῆθος τὸ μετὰ τὸν
τοῦ πυρὸς τόπον, γῆς δὲ σῶμα περὶ ὃ ταῦτα πάντα κεῖται
10 φανερῶς· ὥστε δῆλον ὅτι κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν λόγον καὶ περὶ
ὕδατος ἀνάγκη ζητεῖν. τοιοῦτον δ' οὐδὲν ἄλλο φαίνεται σῶμα
κείμενον ἀθρόον, ὥσπερ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων στοιχείων, πλὴν τὸ
τῆς θαλάττης μέγεθος· τὸ γὰρ τῶν ποταμῶν οὔτ' ἀθρόον
οὔτε στάσιμον, ἀλλ' ὡς γιγνόμενον ἀεὶ φαίνεται καθ' ἡμέραν.
15 ἐκ ταύτης δὴ τῆς ἀπορίας καὶ ἀρχὴ τῶν ὑγρῶν ἔδοξεν εἶναι
καὶ τοῦ παντὸς ὕδατος ἡ θάλαττα. διὸ καὶ τοὺς ποταμοὺς οὐ
μόνον εἰς ταύτην ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐκ ταύτης φασί τινες ῥεῖν· διηθούμενον
γὰρ γίγνεσθαι τὸ ἁλμυρὸν πότιμον. ἀντίκειται δὲ
ἑτέρα πρὸς ταύτην τὴν δόξαν ἀπορία, τί δή ποτ' οὐκ ἔστιν τὸ
20 συνεστὸς ὕδωρ τοῦτο πότιμον, εἴπερ ἀρχὴ τοῦ παντὸς
ὕδατος, ἀλλ' ἁλμυρόν. τὸ δ' αἴτιον ἅμα ταύτης τε τῆς
ἀπορίας λύσις ἔσται, καὶ περὶ θαλάττης τὴν πρώτην λαβεῖν
ὑπόληψιν ἀναγκαῖον ὀρθῶς. τοῦ γὰρ ὕδατος περὶ τὴν γῆν
περιτεταμένου, καθάπερ περὶ τοῦτο ἡ τοῦ ἀέρος σφαῖρα καὶ
25 περὶ ταύτην ἡ λεγομένη πυρός (τοῦτο γάρ ἐστι πάντων ἔσχατον,
εἴθ' ὡς οἱ πλεῖστοι λέγουσιν εἴθ' ὡς ἡμεῖς), φερομένου δὲ
τοῦ ἡλίου τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον, καὶ διὰ ταῦτα τῆς μεταβολῆς
καὶ γενέσεώς τε καὶ φθορᾶς οὔσης, τὸ μὲν λεπτότατον
καὶ γλυκύτατον ἀνάγεται καθ' ἑκάστην ἡμέραν καὶ φέρεται
30 διακρινόμενον καὶ ἀτμίζον εἰς τὸν ἄνω τόπον, ἐκεῖ δὲ πάλιν
συστὰν διὰ τὴν ψύξιν καταφέρεται πάλιν πρὸς τὴν γῆν.
καὶ τοῦτ' ἀεὶ βούλεται ποιεῖν ἡ φύσις οὕτως, καθάπερ εἴρηται
πρότερον. διὸ καὶ γελοῖοι πάντες ὅσοι τῶν πρότερον ὑπέλαβον
τὸν ἥλιον τρέφεσθαι τῷ ὑγρῷ· καὶ διὰ τοῦτ' ἔνιοί γέ
1We must now discuss the origin of the sea, if it has an origin, and the cause of its salt and bitter taste.
What made earlier writers consider the sea to be the original and main body of water is this. It seems 5reasonable to suppose that to be the case on the analogy of the other elements. Each of them has a main bulk which by reason of its mass is the origin of that element, and any parts which change and mix with the other elements come from it. Thus the main body of fire is in the upper region; that of air occupies the place next inside the region of fire; while the mass of the earth is that round which the rest of the elements are seen to lie. 10So we must clearly look for something analogous in the case of water. But here we can find no such single mass, as in the case of the other elements, except the sea. River water is not a unity, nor is it stable, but is seen to be in a continuous process of becoming from day to day. 15It was this difficulty which made people regard the sea as the origin and source of moisture and of all water. And so we find it maintained that rivers not only flow into the sea but originate from it, the salt water becoming sweet by filtration.
But this view involves another difficulty. If 20this body of water is the origin and source of all water, why is it salt and not sweet? The reason for this, besides answering this question, will ensure our having a right first conception of the nature of the sea.
The earth is surrounded by water, just as that is by the sphere of air, 25and that again by the sphere called that of fire (which is the outermost both on the common view and on ours). Now the sun, moving as it does, sets up processes of change and becoming and decay, and by its agency the finest and sweetest water is every day carried up and 30is dissolved into vapour and rises to the upper region, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth. This, as we have said before, is the regular course of nature.
Hence all my predecessors who supposed that the sun was nourished by moisture are absurdly mistaken. Some go on to say that the solstices are due to this, the reason being that the same places cannot always supply the sun with nourishment and that without it he must perish.
What made earlier writers consider the sea to be the original and main body of water is this. It seems 5reasonable to suppose that to be the case on the analogy of the other elements. Each of them has a main bulk which by reason of its mass is the origin of that element, and any parts which change and mix with the other elements come from it. Thus the main body of fire is in the upper region; that of air occupies the place next inside the region of fire; while the mass of the earth is that round which the rest of the elements are seen to lie. 10So we must clearly look for something analogous in the case of water. But here we can find no such single mass, as in the case of the other elements, except the sea. River water is not a unity, nor is it stable, but is seen to be in a continuous process of becoming from day to day. 15It was this difficulty which made people regard the sea as the origin and source of moisture and of all water. And so we find it maintained that rivers not only flow into the sea but originate from it, the salt water becoming sweet by filtration.
But this view involves another difficulty. If 20this body of water is the origin and source of all water, why is it salt and not sweet? The reason for this, besides answering this question, will ensure our having a right first conception of the nature of the sea.
The earth is surrounded by water, just as that is by the sphere of air, 25and that again by the sphere called that of fire (which is the outermost both on the common view and on ours). Now the sun, moving as it does, sets up processes of change and becoming and decay, and by its agency the finest and sweetest water is every day carried up and 30is dissolved into vapour and rises to the upper region, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth. This, as we have said before, is the regular course of nature.
Hence all my predecessors who supposed that the sun was nourished by moisture are absurdly mistaken. Some go on to say that the solstices are due to this, the reason being that the same places cannot always supply the sun with nourishment and that without it he must perish.
355a
1 φασιν καὶ ποιεῖσθαι τὰς τροπὰς αὐτόν· οὐ γὰρ αἰεὶ τοὺς αὐτοὺς
δύνασθαι τόπους παρασκευάζειν αὐτῷ τὴν τροφήν· ἀναγκαῖον
δ' εἶναι τοῦτο συμβαίνειν περὶ αὐτὸν ἢ φθείρεσθαι· καὶ
γὰρ τὸ φανερὸν πῦρ, ἕως ἂν ἔχῃ τροφήν, μέχρι τούτου ζῆν,
5 τὸ δ' ὑγρὸν τῷ πυρὶ τροφὴν εἶναι μόνον, —ὥσπερ ἀφικνούμενον
μέχρι πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον τὸ ἀναγόμενον τοῦ ὑγροῦ, ἢ τὴν ἄνοδον
τοιαύτην οὖσαν οἵανπερ τῇ γιγνομένῃ φλογί, δι' ἧς τὸ εἰκὸς
λαβόντες οὕτω καὶ περὶ τοῦ ἡλίου ὑπέλαβον. τὸ δ' οὐκ ἔστιν
ὅμοιον· ἡ μὲν γὰρ φλὸξ διὰ συνεχοῦς ὑγροῦ καὶ ξηροῦ μεταβαλλόντων
10 γίγνεται καὶ οὐ τρέφεται (οὐ γὰρ ἡ αὐτὴ οὖσα
διαμένει οὐδένα χρόνον ὡς εἰπεῖν), περὶ δὲ τὸν ἥλιον ἀδύνατον
τοῦτο συμβαίνειν, ἐπεὶ τρεφομένου γε τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον,
ὥσπερ ἐκεῖνοί φασιν, δῆλον ὅτι καὶ ὁ ἥλιος οὐ μόνον καθάπερ
Ἡράκλειτός φησιν, νέος ἐφ' ἡμέρῃ ἐστίν, ἀλλ' ἀεὶ νέος
15 συνεχῶς. ἔτι δ' ἡ ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου ἀναγωγὴ τοῦ ὑγροῦ
ὁμοία τοῖς θερμαινομένοις ἐστὶν ὕδασιν ὑπὸ πυρός· εἰ οὖν
μηδὲ τὸ ὑποκαόμενον τρέφεται πῦρ, οὐδὲ τὸν ἥλιον εἰκὸς ἦν
ὑπολαβεῖν, οὐδ' εἰ πᾶν θερμαίνων ἐξατμίσειεν τὸ ὕδωρ. ἄτοπον
δὲ καὶ τὸ μόνον φροντίσαι τοῦ ἡλίου, τῶν δ' ἄλλων ἄστρων
20 αὐτοὺς παριδεῖν τὴν σωτηρίαν, τοσούτων καὶ τὸ πλῆθος καὶ τὸ
μέγεθος ὄντων. τὸ δ' αὐτὸ συμβαίνει καὶ τούτοις ἄλογον
καὶ τοῖς φάσκουσι τὸ πρῶτον ὑγρᾶς οὔσης καὶ τῆς γῆς,
καὶ τοῦ κόσμου τοῦ περὶ τὴν γῆν ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου θερμαινομένου,
ἀέρα γενέσθαι καὶ τὸν ὅλον οὐρανὸν αὐξηθῆναι, καὶ τοῦτον
25 πνεύματά τε παρέχεσθαι καὶ τὰς τροπὰς αὐτοῦ ποιεῖν· φανερῶς
γὰρ ἀεὶ τὸ ἀναχθὲν ὁρῶμεν καταβαῖνον πάλιν ὕδωρ·
κἂν μὴ κατ' ἐνιαυτὸν ἀποδιδῷ καὶ καθ' ἑκάστην ὁμοίως χώραν,
ἀλλ' ἔν γέ τισιν τεταγμένοις χρόνοις ἀποδίδωσι πᾶν
τὸ ληφθέν, ὡς οὔτε τρεφομένων τῶν ἄνωθεν, οὔτε τοῦ μὲν μένοντος
30 ἀέρος ἤδη μετὰ τὴν γένεσιν, τοῦ δὲ γιγνομένου καὶ
φθειρομένου πάλιν εἰς ὕδωρ, ἀλλ' ὁμοίως ἅπαντος διαλυομένου
καὶ συνισταμένου πάλιν εἰς ὕδωρ. τὸ μὲν οὖν πότιμον
καὶ γλυκὺ διὰ κουφότητα πᾶν ἀνάγεται, τὸ δ' ἁλμυρὸν
ὑπομένει διὰ βάρος οὐκ ἐν τῷ αὐτοῦ οἰκείῳ τόπῳ· τοῦτο
35 γὰρ οἰητέον ἀπορηθῆναί τε προσηκόντως (ἄλογον γὰρ εἰ μή
1For the fire we are familiar with lives as long as it is fed, 5and the only food for fire is moisture. As if the moisture that is raised could reach the sun! or this ascent were really like that performed by flame as it comes into being, and to which they supposed the case of the sun to be analogous! Really there is no similarity. A flame 10is a process of becoming, involving a constant interchange of moist and dry. It cannot be said to be nourished since it scarcely persists as one and the same for a moment. This cannot be true of the sun; for if it were nourished like that, as they say it is, we should obviously not only have a new sun every day, as Heraclitus says, but a new sun 15every moment. Again, when the sun causes the moisture to rise, this is like fire heating water. So, as the fire is not fed by the water above it, it is absurd to suppose that the sun feeds on that moisture, even if its heat made all the water in the world evaporate. Again, it is absurd, considering the number and size of the stars, that these thinkers should consider the sun only and 20overlook the question how the rest of the heavenly bodies subsist. Again, they are met by the same difficulty as those who say that at first the earth itself was moist and the world round the earth was warmed by the sun, and so air was generated and the whole firmament grew, and the air caused 25winds and solstices. The objection is that we always plainly see the water that has been carried up coming down again. Even if the same amount does not come back in a year or in a given country, yet in a certain period all that has been carried up is returned. This implies that the celestial bodies do not feed on it, and that we cannot distinguish between some 30air which preserves its character once it is generated and some other which is generated but becomes water again and so perishes; on the contrary, all the moisture alike is dissolved and all of it condensed back into water.
The drinkable, sweet water, then, is light and is all of it drawn up: the salt water is heavy and remains behind, but not in its natural place. 35For this is a question which has been sufficiently discussed (I mean about the natural place that water, like the other elements, must in reason have), and the answer is this.
The drinkable, sweet water, then, is light and is all of it drawn up: the salt water is heavy and remains behind, but not in its natural place. 35For this is a question which has been sufficiently discussed (I mean about the natural place that water, like the other elements, must in reason have), and the answer is this.
355b
1 τίς ἐστιν τόπος ὕδατος ὥσπερ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων στοιχείων) καὶ ταύτην
εἶναι λύσιν· ὃν γὰρ ὁρῶμεν κατέχουσαν τόπον τὴν θάλατταν,
οὗτος οὐκ ἔστιν θαλάττης ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον ὕδατος.
φαίνεται δὲ θαλάττης, ὅτι τὸ μὲν ἁλμυρὸν ὑπομένει διὰ
5 τὸ βάρος, τὸ δὲ γλυκὺ καὶ πότιμον ἀνάγεται διὰ τὴν κουφότητα,
καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς τῶν ζῴων σώμασιν. καὶ γὰρ ἐν
τούτοις τῆς τροφῆς εἰσελθούσης γλυκείας ἡ τῆς ὑγρᾶς τροφῆς
ὑπόστασις καὶ τὸ περίττωμα φαίνεται πικρὸν ὂν καὶ
ἁλμυρόν· τὸ γὰρ γλυκὺ καὶ πότιμον ὑπὸ τῆς ἐμφύτου
10 θερμότητος ἑλκυσθὲν εἰς τὰς σάρκας καὶ τὴν ἄλλην σύνταξιν
ἦλθεν τῶν μερῶν, ὡς ἕκαστον πέφυκεν. ὥσπερ οὖν κἀκεῖ
ἄτοπον εἴ τις τῆς ποτίμου τροφῆς μὴ νομίζοι τόπον εἶναι τὴν
κοιλίαν, ὅτι ταχέως ἀφανίζεται, ἀλλὰ τοῦ περιττώματος,
ὅτι τοῦθ' ὁρᾷ ὑπομένον, οὐκ ἂν ὑπολαμβάνοι καλῶς. ὁμοίως
15 δὲ καὶ ἐν τούτοις· ἔστιν γάρ, ὥσπερ λέγομεν, οὗτος ὁ τόπος
ὕδατος· διὸ καὶ οἱ ποταμοὶ ῥέουσιν εἰς αὐτὸν ἅπαντες καὶ
πᾶν τὸ γιγνόμενον ὕδωρ· εἴς τε γὰρ τὸ κοιλότατον ἡ ῥύσις,
καὶ ἡ θάλαττα τὸν τοιοῦτον ἐπέχει τῆς γῆς τόπον· ἀλλὰ
τὸ μὲν ἀναφέρεται ταχὺ διὰ τὸν ἥλιον ἅπαν, τὸ δ' ὑπολείπεται
20 διὰ τὴν εἰρημένην αἰτίαν. τὸ δὲ ζητεῖν τὴν ἀρχαίαν
ἀπορίαν, διὰ τί τοσοῦτον πλῆθος ὕδατος οὐδαμοῦ φαίνεται
(καθ' ἑκάστην γὰρ ἡμέραν ποταμῶν ῥεόντων ἀναρίθμων
καὶ τὸ μέγεθος ἀπλέτων οὐδὲν ἡ θάλαττα γίγνεται πλείων),
τοῦτο οὐδὲν μὲν ἄτοπον ἀπορῆσαί τινας, οὐ μὴν ἐπιβλέψαντά
25 γε χαλεπὸν ἰδεῖν. τὸ γὰρ αὐτὸ πλῆθος ὕδατος εἰς πλάτος
τε διαταθὲν καὶ ἀθρόον οὐκ ἐν ἴσῳ χρόνῳ ἀναξηραίνεται,
ἀλλὰ διαφέρει τοσοῦτον ὥστε τὸ μὲν διαμεῖναι ἂν ὅλην
τὴν ἡμέραν, τὸ δ' ὥσπερ εἴ τις ἐπὶ τράπεζαν μεγάλην περιτείνειεν
ὕδατος κύαθον, ἅμα διανοουμένοις ἂν ἀφανισθείη
30 πᾶν. ὃ δὴ καὶ περὶ τοὺς ποταμοὺς συμβαίνει· συνεχῶς γὰρ
ῥεόντων ἀθρόων ἀεὶ τὸ ἀφικνούμενον εἰς ἀχανῆ καὶ πλατὺν
τόπον ἀναξηραίνεται ταχὺ καὶ ἀδήλως. τὸ δ' ἐν τῷ Φαίδωνι
γεγραμμένον περί τε τῶν ποταμῶν καὶ τῆς θαλάττης ἀδύνατόν
ἐστιν. λέγεται γὰρ ὡς ἅπαντα μὲν εἰς ἄλληλα συντέτρηται
35 ὑπὸ γῆν, ἀρχὴ δὲ πάντων εἴη καὶ πηγὴ τῶν ὑδάτων
1The place which we see the sea filling is not its natural place but that of water. It seems to belong to the sea because 5the weight of the salt water makes it remain there, while the sweet, drinkable water which is light is carried up. The same thing happens in animal bodies. Here, too, the food when it enters the body is sweet, yet the residuum and dregs of liquid food are found to be bitter and salt. This is because the sweet and drinkable part of it has been drawn away by the natural animal 10heat and has passed into the flesh and the other parts of the body according to their several natures. Now just as here it would be wrong for any one to refuse to call the belly the place of liquid food because that disappears from it soon, and to call it the place of the residuum because this is seen to remain, so 15in the case of our present subject. This place, we say, is the place of water. Hence all rivers and all the water that is generated flow into it: for water flows into the deepest place, and the deepest part of the earth is filled by the sea. Only all the light and sweet part of it is quickly carried off by the sun, while herest remains 20for the reason we have explained. It is quite natural that some people should have been puzzled by the old question why such a mass of water leaves no trace anywhere (for the sea does not increase though innumerable and vast rivers are flowing into it every day.) But if one considers the matter 25the solution is easy. The same amount of water does not take as long to dry up when it is spread out as when it is gathered in a body, and indeed the difference is so great that in the one case it might persist the whole day long while in the other it might 30all disappear in a moment-as for instance if one were to spread out a cup of water over a large table. This is the case with the rivers: all the time they are flowing their water forms a compact mass, but when it arrives at a vast wide place it quickly and imperceptibly evaporates.
But the theory of the Phaedo about rivers and the sea is impossible. There it is said that the earth is pierced by intercommunicating channels 35and that the original head and source of all waters is what is called Tartarus-a mass of water about the centre, from which all waters, flowing and standing, are derived.
But the theory of the Phaedo about rivers and the sea is impossible. There it is said that the earth is pierced by intercommunicating channels 35and that the original head and source of all waters is what is called Tartarus-a mass of water about the centre, from which all waters, flowing and standing, are derived.
356a
1 ὁ καλούμενος Τάρταρος, περὶ τὸ μέσον ὕδατός τι πλῆθος,
ἐξ οὗ καὶ τὰ ῥέοντα καὶ τὰ μὴ ῥέοντα ἀναδίδωσιν πάντα·
τὴν δ' ἐπίρρυσιν ποιεῖν ἐφ' ἕκαστα τῶν ῥευμάτων διὰ τὸ σαλεύειν
ἀεὶ τὸ πρῶτον καὶ τὴν ἀρχήν· οὐκ ἔχειν γὰρ ἕδραν,
5 ἀλλ' ἀεὶ περὶ τὸ μέσον εἱλεῖσθαι· κινούμενον δ' ἄνω καὶ
κάτω ποιεῖν τὴν ἐπίχυσιν τοῖς ῥεύμασιν. τὰ δὲ πολλαχοῦ
μὲν λιμνάζειν, οἷον καὶ τὴν παρ' ἡμῖν εἶναι θάλατταν,
πάντα δὲ πάλιν κύκλῳ περιάγειν εἰς τὴν ἀρχήν, ὅθεν ἤρξαντο
ῥεῖν, πολλὰ μὲν κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν τόπον, τὰ δὲ
10 καὶ καταντικρὺ τῇ θέσει τῆς ἐκροῆς, οἷον εἰ ῥεῖν ἤρξαντο κάτωθεν,
ἄνωθεν εἰσβάλλειν. εἶναι δὲ μέχρι τοῦ μέσου τὴν κάθεσιν·
τὸ γὰρ λοιπὸν πρὸς ἄναντες ἤδη πᾶσιν εἶναι τὴν φοράν.
τοὺς δὲ χυμοὺς καὶ τὰς χρόας ἴσχειν τὸ ὕδωρ δι' οἵας
ἂν τύχωσι ῥέοντα γῆς. συμβαίνει δὲ τοὺς ποταμοὺς ῥεῖν οὐκ
15 ἐπὶ ταὐτὸν ἀεὶ κατὰ τὸν λόγον τοῦτον· ἐπεὶ γὰρ εἰς τὸ μέσον
εἰσρέουσιν ἀφ' οὗπερ ἐκρέουσιν, οὐδὲν μᾶλλον ῥευσοῦνται
κάτωθεν ἢ ἄνωθεν, ἀλλ' ἐφ' ὁπότερ' ἂν ῥέψῃ κυμαίνων ὁ
Τάρταρος. καίτοι τούτου συμβαίνοντος γένοιτ' ἂν τὸ λεγόμενον
ἄνω ποταμῶν· ὅπερ ἀδύνατον. ἔτι τὸ γιγνόμενον ὕδωρ
20 καὶ τὸ πάλιν ἀναγόμενον πόθεν ἔσται; τοῦτο γὰρ ἐξαίρειν
ὅλον ἀναγκαῖον, εἴπερ ἀεὶ σῴζεται τὸ ἴσον· ὅσον γὰρ ἔξω
ῥεῖ, πάλιν ῥεῖ πρὸς τὴν ἀρχήν. καίτοι πάντες οἱ ποταμοὶ
φαίνονται τελευτῶντες εἰς τὴν θάλατταν, ὅσοι μὴ εἰς ἀλλήλους·
εἰς δὲ γῆν οὐδείς, ἀλλὰ κἂν ἀφανισθῇ, πάλιν
25 ἀναδύνουσιν. μεγάλοι δὲ γίγνονται τῶν ποταμῶν οἱ μακρὰν
ῥέοντες διὰ κοίλης· πολλῶν γὰρ δέχονται ῥεύματα ποταμῶν,
ὑποτεμνόμενοι τῷ τόπῳ καὶ τῷ μήκει τὰς ὁδούς· διόπερ
ὅ τ' Ἴστρος καὶ ὁ Νεῖλος μέγιστοι τῶν ποταμῶν εἰσιν
τῶν εἰς τήνδε τὴν θάλατταν ἐξιόντων. καὶ περὶ τῶν πηγῶν
30 ἄλλοι λέγουσιν ἑκάστου τῶν ποταμῶν ἄλλας αἰτίας διὰ τὸ
πολλοὺς εἰς τὸν αὐτὸν ἐμβάλλειν. ταῦτα δὴ πάντα φανερὸν
ὡς ἀδύνατόν ἐστι συμβαίνειν ἄλλως τε καὶ τῆς θαλάττης
ἐκεῖθεν τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐχούσης. ὅτι μὲν οὖν ὕδατός τε ὁ τόπος
ἐστὶν οὗτος καὶ οὐ θαλάττης, καὶ διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν τὸ μὲν πότιμον
35 ἄδηλον πλὴν ῥέον, τὸ δ' ὑπομένον, καὶ διότι τελευτὴ
1This primary and original water is always surging to and fro, and so it causes the rivers to flow on this side of the earth's centre and on that; for it has no fixed seat 5but is always oscillating about the centre. Its motion up and down is what fills rivers. Many of these form lakes in various places (our sea is an instance of one of these), but all of them come round again in a circle to the original source of their flow, many at the same point, but some at a point 10opposite to that from which they issued; for instance, if they started from the other side of the earth's centre, they might return from this side of it. They descend only as far as the centre, for after that all motion is upwards. Water gets its tastes and colours from the kind of earth the rivers happened to flow through.
But on this theory rivers do not always flow 15in the same sense. For since they flow to the centre from which they issue forth they will not be flowing down any more than up, but in whatever direction the surging of Tartarus inclines to. But at this rate we shall get the proverbial rivers flowing upwards, which is impossible. Again, where is the water that is generated 20and what goes up again as vapour to come from? For this must all of it simply be ignored, since the quantity of water is always the same and all the water that flows out from the original source flows back to it again. This itself is not true, since all rivers are seen to end in the sea except where one flows into another. Not one of them ends in the earth, but even when one is swallowed up 25it comes to the surface again. And those rivers are large which flow for a long distance through a lowying country, for by their situation and length they cut off the course of many others and swallow them up. This is why the Istrus and the Nile are the greatest of the rivers which flow into our sea. Indeed, so many rivers fall into them that 30there is disagreement as to the sources of them both. 35All of which is plainly impossible on the theory, and the more so as it derives the sea from Tartarus.
But on this theory rivers do not always flow 15in the same sense. For since they flow to the centre from which they issue forth they will not be flowing down any more than up, but in whatever direction the surging of Tartarus inclines to. But at this rate we shall get the proverbial rivers flowing upwards, which is impossible. Again, where is the water that is generated 20and what goes up again as vapour to come from? For this must all of it simply be ignored, since the quantity of water is always the same and all the water that flows out from the original source flows back to it again. This itself is not true, since all rivers are seen to end in the sea except where one flows into another. Not one of them ends in the earth, but even when one is swallowed up 25it comes to the surface again. And those rivers are large which flow for a long distance through a lowying country, for by their situation and length they cut off the course of many others and swallow them up. This is why the Istrus and the Nile are the greatest of the rivers which flow into our sea. Indeed, so many rivers fall into them that 30there is disagreement as to the sources of them both. 35All of which is plainly impossible on the theory, and the more so as it derives the sea from Tartarus.
356b
1 μᾶλλον ὕδατος ἢ ἀρχή ἐστιν ἡ θάλαττα, καθάπερ τὸ ἐν
τοῖς σώμασιν περίττωμα τῆς τροφῆς πάσης, καὶ μάλιστα
τὸ τῆς ὑγρᾶς, εἰρήσθω τοσαῦθ' ἡμῖν.
1Enough has been said to prove that this is the natural place of water and not of the sea, and to explain why sweet water is only found in rivers, while salt water is stationary, and to show that the sea is the end rather than the source of water, analogous to the residual matter of all food, and especially liquid food, in animal bodies.
Book 2,Chapter 3 (356b4–359b26)
περὶ δὲ τῆς ἁλμυρότητος αὐτῆς λεκτέον, καὶ πότερον
5 αἰεί ἐστιν ἡ αὐτή, ἢ οὔτ' ἦν οὔτ' ἔσται ἀλλ' ὑπολείψει· καὶ
γὰρ οὕτως οἴονταί τινες. τοῦτο μὲν οὖν ἐοίκασι πάντες ὁμολογεῖν,
ὅτι γέγονεν, εἴπερ καὶ πᾶς ὁ κόσμος· ἅμα γὰρ
αὐτῆς ποιοῦσι τὴν γένεσιν. ὥστε δῆλον ὡς εἴπερ ἀίδιον τὸ
πᾶν, καὶ περὶ τῆς θαλάττης οὕτως ὑποληπτέον. τὸ δὲ νομίζειν
10 ἐλάττω τε γίγνεσθαι τὸ πλῆθος, ὥσπερ φησὶ Δημόκριτος,
καὶ τέλος ὑπολείψειν, τῶν Αἰσώπου μύθων οὐδὲν
διαφέρειν ἔοικεν ὁ πεπεισμένος οὕτως· καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖνος ἐμυθολόγησεν
ὡς δὶς μὲν ἡ Χάρυβδις ἀναρροφήσασα τὸ μὲν
πρῶτον τὰ ὄρη ἐποίησεν φανερά, τὸ δὲ δεύτερον τὰς νήσους,
15 τὸ δὲ τελευταῖον ῥοφήσασα ξηρὰν ποιήσει πάμπαν. ἐκείνῳ
μὲν οὖν ἥρμοττεν ὀργιζομένῳ πρὸς τὸν πορθμέα τοιοῦτον εἰπεῖν
μῦθον, τοῖς δὲ τὴν ἀλήθειαν ζητοῦσιν ἧττον· δι' ἣν γὰρ αἰτίαν
ἔμεινε τὸ πρῶτον, εἴτε διὰ βάρος, ὥσπερ τινὲς καὶ τούτων
φασίν (ἐν προχείρῳ γὰρ τούτου τὴν αἰτίαν ἰδεῖν), εἴτε
20 καὶ δι' ἄλλο τι, δῆλον ὅτι διὰ τοῦτο διαμένειν ἀναγκαῖον
καὶ τὸν λοιπὸν χρόνον αὐτήν. ἢ γὰρ λεκτέον αὐτοῖς ὅτι οὐδὲ
τὸ ἀναχθὲν ὕδωρ ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου ἥξει πάλιν, ἢ εἴπερ τοῦτ'
ἔσται, ἀναγκαῖον ἤτοι ἀεὶ ἢ μέχρι οὗπερ ἂν ᾖ τοῦτο ὑπολείπεσθαι
τὴν θάλατταν, καὶ πάλιν ἀναχθῆναι ἐκεῖνο πρότερον
25 δεήσει τὸ πότιμον. ὥστε οὐδέποτε ξηρανεῖται· πάλιν γὰρ
ἐκεῖνο φθήσεται καταβὰν εἰς τὴν αὐτὴν τὸ προανελθόν· διαφέρει
γὰρ οὐδὲν ἅπαξ τοῦτ' εἰπεῖν ἢ πολλάκις. εἰ μὲν οὖν τὸν
ἥλιον παύσει τις τῆς φορᾶς, τί ἔσται τὸ ξηραῖνον; εἰ δ' ἐάσει
εἶναι τὴν περιφοράν, ἀεὶ πλησιάζων τὸ πότιμον, καθάπερ
30 εἴπομεν, ἀνάξει, ἀφήσει δὲ πάλιν ἀναχωρῶν. ἔλαβον
δὲ ταύτην τὴν διάνοιαν κατὰ τῆς θαλάττης ἐκ τοῦ πολλοὺς
τόπους φαίνεσθαι ξηροτέρους νῦν ἢ πρότερον· περὶ οὗ τὴν
αἰτίαν εἴπομεν, ὅτι τῶν κατά τινα χρόνον ὑπερβολῶν γιγνομένων
ὕδατος τοῦτ' ἐστὶν τὸ πάθος, ἀλλ' οὐ διὰ τὴν τοῦ παντὸς
35 γένεσιν καὶ τῶν μορίων· καὶ πάλιν γ' ἔσται τοὐναντίον· καὶ
4We must now explain why the sea is salt, and ask 5whether it eternally exists as identically the same body, or whether it did not exist at all once and some day will exist no longer, but will dry up as some people think.
Every one admits this, that if the whole world originated the sea did too; for they make them come into being at the same time. It follows that if the universe is eternal the same must be true of the sea. Any one who thinks like Democritus that 10the sea is diminishing and will disappear in the end reminds us of Aesop's tales. His story was that Charybdis had twice sucked in the sea: the first time she made the mountains visible; the second time the islands; and 15when she sucks it in for the last time she will dry it up entirely. Such a tale is appropriate enough to Aesop in a rage with the ferryman, but not to serious inquirers. Whatever made the sea remain at first, whether it was its weight, as some even of those who hold these views say (for it is easy to see the cause here), 20or some other reason-clearly the same thing must make it persist for ever. They must either deny that the water raised by the sun will return at all, or, if it does, they must admit that the sea persists for ever or as long as this process goes on, and again, that for the same period of time that sweet water must have been carried up beforehand. 25So the sea will never dry up: for before that can happen the water that has gone up beforehand will return to it: for if you say that this happens once you must admit its recurrence. If you stop the sun's course there is no drying agency. If you let it go on it will draw up the sweet water 30as we have said whenever it approaches, and let it descend again when it recedes. This notion about the sea is derived from the fact that many places are found to be drier now than they once were. Why this is so we have explained. The phenomenon is due to temporary excess of rain and not to any process 35of becoming in which the universe or its parts are involved.
Every one admits this, that if the whole world originated the sea did too; for they make them come into being at the same time. It follows that if the universe is eternal the same must be true of the sea. Any one who thinks like Democritus that 10the sea is diminishing and will disappear in the end reminds us of Aesop's tales. His story was that Charybdis had twice sucked in the sea: the first time she made the mountains visible; the second time the islands; and 15when she sucks it in for the last time she will dry it up entirely. Such a tale is appropriate enough to Aesop in a rage with the ferryman, but not to serious inquirers. Whatever made the sea remain at first, whether it was its weight, as some even of those who hold these views say (for it is easy to see the cause here), 20or some other reason-clearly the same thing must make it persist for ever. They must either deny that the water raised by the sun will return at all, or, if it does, they must admit that the sea persists for ever or as long as this process goes on, and again, that for the same period of time that sweet water must have been carried up beforehand. 25So the sea will never dry up: for before that can happen the water that has gone up beforehand will return to it: for if you say that this happens once you must admit its recurrence. If you stop the sun's course there is no drying agency. If you let it go on it will draw up the sweet water 30as we have said whenever it approaches, and let it descend again when it recedes. This notion about the sea is derived from the fact that many places are found to be drier now than they once were. Why this is so we have explained. The phenomenon is due to temporary excess of rain and not to any process 35of becoming in which the universe or its parts are involved.
357a
1 ὅταν γένηται, ξηρανεῖται πάλιν· καὶ τοῦθ' οὕτως κατὰ κύκλον
ἀναγκαῖον ἀεὶ βαδίζειν· μᾶλλον γὰρ οὕτως εὔλογον ὑπολαβεῖν
ἢ διὰ ταῦτα τὸν οὐρανὸν ὅλον μεταβάλλειν. ἀλλὰ
περὶ μὲν τούτων πλείω τῆς ἀξίας ἐνδιατέτριφεν ὁ λόγος·
5 περὶ δὲ τῆς ἁλμυρότητος, τοῖς μὲν ἅπαξ γεννήσασι καὶ
ὅλως αὐτὴν γεννῶσιν ἀδύνατόν ἐστιν ἁλμυρὰν ποιεῖν. εἰ
γὰρ παντὸς τοῦ ὑγροῦ τοῦ περὶ τὴν γῆν ὄντος καὶ ἀναχθέντος
ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου τὸ ὑπολειφθὲν ἐγένετο θάλαττα, εἴτ' ἐνυπῆρχε
τοσοῦτος χυμὸς ἐν τῷ πολλῷ ὕδατι καὶ γλυκεῖ διὰ τὸ
10 συμμειχθῆναί τινα γῆν τοιαύτην, οὐδὲν ἧττον ἐλθόντος πάλιν
τοῦ διατμίσαντος ὕδατος ἀνάγκη, ἴσου γ' ὄντος τοῦ πλήθους,
καὶ τὸ πρῶτον· ἢ εἰ μηδὲ τὸ πρῶτον, μηδ' ὕστερον ἁλμυρὰν
αὐτὴν εἶναι. εἰ δὲ καὶ τὸ πρῶτον εὐθὺς ἦν, λεκτέον τίς
ἡ αἰτία, καὶ ἅμα διὰ τί οὐκ εἰ καὶ τότε ἀνήχθη καὶ νῦν
15 πάσχει ταὐτό. ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ ὅσοι τὴν γῆν αἰτιῶνται τῆς
ἁλμυρότητος ἐμμειγνυμένην (ἔχειν γάρ φασι πολλοὺς χυμοὺς
αὐτήν, ὥσθ' ὑπὸ τῶν ποταμῶν συγκαταφερομένην διὰ
τὴν μεῖξιν ποιεῖν ἁλμυράν), ἄτοπον τὸ μὴ καὶ τοὺς ποταμοὺς
ἁλμυροὺς εἶναι· πῶς γὰρ δυνατὸν ἐν πολλῷ μὲν πλήθει
20 ὕδατος ἐπίδηλον οὕτως ποιεῖν τὴν μεῖξιν τῆς τοιαύτης γῆς,
ἐν ἑκάστῳ δὲ μή; δῆλον γὰρ ὅτι ἡ θάλαττά ἐστιν ἅπαν τὸ
ποτάμιον ὕδωρ· οὐδενὶ γὰρ διέφερεν ἀλλ' ἢ τῷ ἁλμυρὰ εἶναι
τῶν ποταμῶν· τοῦτο δ' ἐν ἐκείνοις ἔρχεται εἰς τὸν τόπον
εἰς ὃν ἀθρόοι ῥέουσιν. ὁμοίως δὲ γελοῖον κἂν εἴ τις εἰπὼν
25 ἱδρῶτα τῆς γῆς εἶναι τὴν θάλατταν οἴεταί τι σαφὲς εἰρηκέναι,
καθάπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς· πρὸς ποίησιν μὲν γὰρ οὕτως
εἰπὼν ἴσως εἴρηκεν ἱκανῶς (ἡ γὰρ μεταφορὰ ποιητικόν),
πρὸς δὲ τὸ γνῶναι τὴν φύσιν οὐχ ἱκανῶς· οὐδὲ γὰρ ἐνταῦθα
δῆλον πῶς ἐκ γλυκέος τοῦ πόματος ἁλμυρὸς γίγνεται ὁ ἱδρώς,
30 πότερον ἀπελθόντος τινὸς μόνον οἷον τοῦ γλυκυτάτου, ἢ συμμειχθέντος
τινός, καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς διὰ τῆς τέφρας ἠθουμένοις
ὕδασιν. φαίνεται δὲ τὸ αἴτιον ταὐτὸ καὶ περὶ τὸ εἰς
τὴν κύστιν περίττωμα συλλεγόμενον· καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖνο πικρὸν
καὶ ἁλμυρὸν γίγνεται τοῦ πινομένου καὶ τοῦ ἐν τῇ τροφῇ ὑγροῦ
1Some day the opposite will take place and after that the earth will grow dry once again. We must recognize that this process always goes on thus in a cycle, for that is more satisfactory than to suppose a change in the whole world in order to explain these facts. But we have dwelt longer on this point than it deserves.
5To return to the saltness of the sea: those who create the sea once for all, or indeed generate it at all, cannot account for its saltness. It makes no difference whether the sea is the residue of all the moisture that is about the earth and has been drawn up by the sun, or whether all the flavour existing in the whole mass of sweet water 10is due to the admixture of a certain kind of earth. Since the total volume of the sea is the same once the water that evaporated has returned, it follows that it must either have been salt at first too, or, if not at first, then not now either. If it was salt from the very beginning, then we want to know why that was so; and why, if salt water was drawn up then, 15that is not the case now.
Again, if it is maintained that an admixture of earth makes the sea salt (for they say that earth has many flavours and is washed down by the rivers and so makes the sea salt by its admixture), it is strange that rivers should not be salt too. How can the admixture of this earth have such a striking effect in a great quantity 20of water and not in each river singly? For the sea, differing in nothing from rivers but in being salt, is evidently simply the totality of river water, and the rivers are the vehicle in which that earth is carried to their common destination.
It is equally absurd to suppose that anything has been explained by calling the sea '25the sweat of the earth', like Empedicles. Metaphors are poetical and so that expression of his may satisfy the requirements of a poem, but as a scientific theory it is unsatisfactory. Even in the case of the body it is a question how the sweet liquid drunk becomes salt sweat 30whether it is merely by the departure of some element in it which is sweetest, or by the admixture of something, as when water is strained through ashes.
5To return to the saltness of the sea: those who create the sea once for all, or indeed generate it at all, cannot account for its saltness. It makes no difference whether the sea is the residue of all the moisture that is about the earth and has been drawn up by the sun, or whether all the flavour existing in the whole mass of sweet water 10is due to the admixture of a certain kind of earth. Since the total volume of the sea is the same once the water that evaporated has returned, it follows that it must either have been salt at first too, or, if not at first, then not now either. If it was salt from the very beginning, then we want to know why that was so; and why, if salt water was drawn up then, 15that is not the case now.
Again, if it is maintained that an admixture of earth makes the sea salt (for they say that earth has many flavours and is washed down by the rivers and so makes the sea salt by its admixture), it is strange that rivers should not be salt too. How can the admixture of this earth have such a striking effect in a great quantity 20of water and not in each river singly? For the sea, differing in nothing from rivers but in being salt, is evidently simply the totality of river water, and the rivers are the vehicle in which that earth is carried to their common destination.
It is equally absurd to suppose that anything has been explained by calling the sea '25the sweat of the earth', like Empedicles. Metaphors are poetical and so that expression of his may satisfy the requirements of a poem, but as a scientific theory it is unsatisfactory. Even in the case of the body it is a question how the sweet liquid drunk becomes salt sweat 30whether it is merely by the departure of some element in it which is sweetest, or by the admixture of something, as when water is strained through ashes.
357b
1 γλυκέος ὄντος. εἰ δὴ ὥσπερ τὸ διὰ τῆς κονίας ἠθούμενον ὕδωρ
γίγνεται πικρόν, καὶ ταῦτα, τῷ μὲν οὔρῳ συγκαταφερομένης
τοιαύτης τινὸς δυνάμεως οἵα καὶ φαίνεται ὑφισταμένη ἐν
τοῖς ἀγγείοις ἁλμυρίς, τῷ δ' ἱδρῶτι συνεκκρινομένης ἐκ τῶν
5 σαρκῶν, οἷον καταπλύνοντος τὸ τοιοῦτον ἐκ τοῦ σώματος τοῦ
ἐξιόντος ὑγροῦ, δῆλον ὅτι κἀν τῇ θαλάττῃ τὸ ἐκ τῆς γῆς
συγκαταμισγόμενον τῷ ὑγρῷ αἴτιον τῆς ἁλμυρότητος. ἐν
μὲν οὖν τῷ σώματι γίγνεται τὸ τοιοῦτον ἡ τῆς τροφῆς ὑπόστασις
διὰ τὴν ἀπεψίαν· ἐν δὲ τῇ γῇ τίνα τρόπον ὑπῆρχε,
10 λεκτέον. ὅλως δὲ πῶς οἷόν τε τοσοῦτον ὕδατος πλῆθος ξηραινομένης
καὶ θερμαινομένης ἐκκριθῆναι; πολλοστὸν γὰρ δεῖ
μέρος αὐτὸ τοῦ λειφθέντος εἶναι ἐν τῇ γῇ. ἔτι διὰ τί οὐ
καὶ νῦν ὅταν ξηραινομένη τύχῃ γῆ, εἴτε πλείων εἴτε
ἐλάττων, ἰδίει; (ἡ γὰρ ὑγρότης καὶ ὁ ἱδρὼς γίγνεται πικρός.)
15 εἴπερ γὰρ καὶ τότε, καὶ νῦν ἐχρῆν. οὐ φαίνεται δὲ τοῦτο
συμβαῖνον, ἀλλὰ ξηρὰ μὲν οὖσα ὑγραίνεται, ὑγρὰ δ' οὖσα
οὐδὲν πάσχει τοιοῦτον. πῶς οὖν οἷόν τε περὶ τὴν πρώτην γένεσιν,
ὑγρᾶς οὔσης τῆς γῆς, ἰδίειν ξηραινομένην; ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον
εἰκός, ὥσπερ φασί τινες, ἀπελθόντος τοῦ πλείστου καὶ
20 μετεωρισθέντος τοῦ ὑγροῦ διὰ τὸν ἥλιον, τὸ λειφθὲν εἶναι θάλατταν·
ὑγρὰν δ' οὖσαν ἰδίειν ἀδύνατον. τὰ μὲν οὖν λεγόμενα
τῆς ἁλμυρότητος αἴτια διαφεύγειν φαίνεται τὸν λόγον·
ἡμεῖς δὲ λέγωμεν ἀρχὴν λαβόντες τὴν αὐτὴν ἣν καὶ
πρότερον· ἐπειδὴ γὰρ κεῖται διπλῆν εἶναι τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν,
25 τὴν μὲν ὑγρὰν τὴν δὲ ξηράν, δῆλον ὅτι ταύτην οἰητέον ἀρχὴν
εἶναι τῶν τοιούτων. καὶ δὴ καὶ περὶ οὗ ἀπορῆσαι πρότερον
ἀναγκαῖον, πότερον καὶ ἡ θάλαττα ἀεὶ διαμένει τῶν
αὐτῶν οὖσα μορίων ἀριθμῷ ἢ τῷ εἴδει καὶ τῷ ποσῷ μεταβαλλόντων
ἀεὶ τῶν μερῶν, καθάπερ ἀὴρ καὶ τὸ πότιμον
30 ὕδωρ καὶ πῦρ (ἀεὶ γὰρ ἄλλο καὶ ἄλλο γίγνεται τούτων ἕκαστον,
τὸ δ' εἶδος τοῦ πλήθους ἑκάστου τούτων μένει, καθάπερ
τὸ τῶν ῥεόντων ὑδάτων καὶ τὸ τῆς φλογὸς ῥεῦμα)· φανερὸν
δὴ καὶ τοῦτο καὶ πιθανόν, ὡς ἀδύνατον μὴ τὸν αὐτὸν εἶναι περὶ
πάντων τούτων λόγον, καὶ διαφέρειν ταχυτῆτι καὶ βραδυτῆτι
1Actually the saltness seems to be due to the same cause as in the case of the residual liquid that gathers in the bladder. That, too, becomes bitter and salt though the liquid we drink and that contained in our food is sweet. If then the bitterness is due in these cases (as with the water strained through lye) to the presence of a certain sort of stuff that is carried along by the urine (as indeed we actually find a salt deposit settling in chamber-pots) and is secreted from the 5flesh in sweat (as if the departing moisture were washing the stuff out of the body), then no doubt the admixture of something earthy with the water is what makes the sea salt.
Now in the body stuff of this kind, viz. the sediment of food, is due to failure to digest: but how there came to be any such thing in the earth 10requires explanation. Besides, how can the drying and warming of the earth cause the secretion such a great quantity of water; especially as that must be a mere fragment of what is left in the earth? Again, waiving the question of quantity, why does not the earth sweat now when it happens to be in process of drying? 15If it did so then, it ought to do so now. But it does not: on the contrary, when it is dry it graws moist, but when it is moist it does not secrete anything at all. How then was it possible for the earth at the beginning when it was moist to sweat as it grew dry? Indeed, the theory that maintains that most of the moisture departed and 20was drawn up by the sun and that what was left over is the sea is more reasonable; but for the earth to sweat when it is moist is impossible.
Since all the attempts to account for the saltness of the sea seem unsuccessful let us explain it by the help of the principle we have used already.
Since we recognize two kinds of evaporation, 25one moist, the other dry, it is clear that the latter must be recognized as the source of phenomena like those we are concerned with.
But there is a question which we must discuss first. Does the sea always 30remain numerically one and consisting of the same parts, or is it, too, one in form and volume while its parts are in continual change, like air and sweet water and fire?
Now in the body stuff of this kind, viz. the sediment of food, is due to failure to digest: but how there came to be any such thing in the earth 10requires explanation. Besides, how can the drying and warming of the earth cause the secretion such a great quantity of water; especially as that must be a mere fragment of what is left in the earth? Again, waiving the question of quantity, why does not the earth sweat now when it happens to be in process of drying? 15If it did so then, it ought to do so now. But it does not: on the contrary, when it is dry it graws moist, but when it is moist it does not secrete anything at all. How then was it possible for the earth at the beginning when it was moist to sweat as it grew dry? Indeed, the theory that maintains that most of the moisture departed and 20was drawn up by the sun and that what was left over is the sea is more reasonable; but for the earth to sweat when it is moist is impossible.
Since all the attempts to account for the saltness of the sea seem unsuccessful let us explain it by the help of the principle we have used already.
Since we recognize two kinds of evaporation, 25one moist, the other dry, it is clear that the latter must be recognized as the source of phenomena like those we are concerned with.
But there is a question which we must discuss first. Does the sea always 30remain numerically one and consisting of the same parts, or is it, too, one in form and volume while its parts are in continual change, like air and sweet water and fire?
358a
1 τῆς μεταβολῆς, ἐπὶ πάντων τε φθορὰν εἶναι καὶ
γένεσιν, ταύτην μέντοι τεταγμένως συμβαίνειν πᾶσιν αὐτοῖς.
τούτων δ' οὕτως ἐχόντων, πειρατέον ἀποδοῦναι τὴν αἰτίαν
καὶ περὶ τῆς ἁλμυρότητος. φανερὸν δὴ διὰ πολλῶν σημείων
5 ὅτι γίγνεται τοιοῦτος ὁ χυμὸς διὰ σύμμειξίν τινος. ἔν τε γὰρ
τοῖς σώμασι τὸ ἀπεπτότατον ἁλμυρὸν καὶ πικρόν, ὥσπερ
καὶ πρότερον εἴπομεν· ἀπεπτότατον γὰρ τὸ περίττωμα τῆς
ὑγρᾶς τροφῆς· τοιαύτη δὲ πᾶσα μὲν ἡ ὑπόστασις, μάλιστα
δὲ ἡ εἰς τὴν κύστιν (σημεῖον δ' ὅτι λεπτοτάτη ἐστίν· τὰ δὲ
10 πεττόμενα πάντα συνίστασθαι πέφυκεν)· ἔπειτα ἱδρώς [ἀεί]· ἐν οἷς
τὸ αὐτὸ σῶμα συνεκκρίνεται, ὃ ποιεῖ τὸν χυμὸν τοῦτον.
ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐν τοῖς καομένοις· οὗ γὰρ ἂν μὴ κρατήσῃ τὸ
θερμόν, ἐν μὲν τοῖς σώμασι γίγνεται περίττωσις, ἐν δὲ τοῖς
καομένοις τέφρα. διὸ καὶ τὴν θάλαττάν τινες ἐκ κατακεκαυμένης
15 φασὶ γενέσθαι γῆς. ὃ οὕτω μὲν εἰπεῖν ἄτοπον, τὸ
μέντοι ἐκ τοιαύτης ἀληθές· ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ ἐν τοῖς εἰρημένοις,
οὕτω καὶ ἐν τῷ ὅλῳ ἔκ τε τῶν φυομένων καὶ γιγνομένων
κατὰ φύσιν ἀεὶ δεῖ νοεῖν, ὥσπερ ἐκ πεπυρωμένων τὸ
λειπόμενον τοιαύτην εἶναι γῆν, καὶ δὴ καὶ τὴν ἐν τῇ ξηρᾷ
20 ἀναθυμίασιν πᾶσαν· αὕτη γὰρ καὶ παρέχεται τὸ πολὺ
τοῦτο πλῆθος. μεμειγμένης δ' οὔσης, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν, τῆς τε
ἀτμιδώδους ἀναθυμιάσεως καὶ τῆς ξηρᾶς, ὅταν συνιστῆται
εἰς νέφη καὶ ὕδωρ, ἀναγκαῖον ἐμπεριλαμβάνεσθαί τι πλῆθος
ἀεὶ ταύτης τῆς δυνάμεως, καὶ συγκαταφέρεσθαι πάλιν
25 ὕοντος, καὶ τοῦτ' ἀεὶ γίγνεσθαι κατά τινα τάξιν,
ὡς ἐνδέχεται μετέχειν τὰ ἐνταῦθα τάξεως. ὅθεν μὲν οὖν ἡ
γένεσις ἔνεστιν τοῦ ἁλμυροῦ ἐν τῷ ὕδατι, εἴρηται. καὶ διὰ
τοῦτο τά τε νότια ὕδατα πλατύτερα καὶ τὰ πρῶτα τῶν
μετοπωρινῶν· ὅ τε γὰρ νότος καὶ τῷ μεγέθει καὶ τῷ
30 πνεύματι ἀλεεινότατος ἄνεμός ἐστιν, καὶ πνεῖ ἀπὸ τόπων
ξηρῶν καὶ θερμῶν, ὥστε μετ' ὀλίγης ἀτμίδος. διὸ καὶ θερμός
ἐστιν· εἰ γὰρ καὶ μὴ τοιοῦτος, ἀλλ' ὅθεν ἄρχεται πνεῖν
ψυχρός, οὐδὲν ἧττον προϊὼν διὰ τὸ συμπεριλαμβάνειν πολλὴν
ἀναθυμίασιν ξηρὰν ἐκ τῶν σύνεγγυς τόπων θερμός ἐστιν·
35 ὁ δὲ βορέας ἅτε ἀφ' ὑγρῶν τόπων ἀτμιδώδης· διὸ ψυχρός·
1All of these are in a constant state of change, but the form and the quantity of each of them are fixed, just as they are in the case of a flowing river or a burning flame. The answer is clear, and there is no doubt that the same account holds good of all these things alike. They differ in that some of them change more rapidly or more slowly than others; and they all are involved in a process of perishing and becoming which yet affects them all in a regular course.
This being so we must go on to try to explain why the sea is salt. There are many facts which make it clear 5that this taste is due to the admixture of something. First, in animal bodies what is least digested, the residue of liquid food, is salt and bitter, as we said before. All animal excreta are undigested, but especially that which gathers in the bladder (its extreme lightness proves this; for 10everything that is digested is condensed), and also sweat; in these then is excreted (along with other matter) an identical substance to which this flavour is due. The case of things burnt is analogous. What heat fails to assimilate becomes the excrementary residue in animal bodies, and, in things burnt, ashes. That is why some people 15say that it was burnt earth that made the sea salt. To say that it was burnt earth is absurd; but to say that it was something like burnt earth is true. We must suppose that just as in the cases we have described, so in the world as a whole, everything that grows and is naturally generated always leaves an undigested residue, like that of things burnt, consisting of this sort of earth. All the earthy stuff in the dry exhalation is of this nature, 20and it is the dry exhalation which accounts for its great quantity. Now since, as we have said, the moist and the dry evaporations are mixed, some quantity of this stuff must always be included in the clouds and the water that are formed by condensation, and must redescend to the earth 25in rain. This process must always go on with such regularity as the sublunary world admits of. and it is the answer to the question how the sea comes to be salt.
It also explains why rain that comes from the south, and the first rains of autumn, are brackish. 35The south is the warmest of winds 30and it blows from dry and hot regions.
This being so we must go on to try to explain why the sea is salt. There are many facts which make it clear 5that this taste is due to the admixture of something. First, in animal bodies what is least digested, the residue of liquid food, is salt and bitter, as we said before. All animal excreta are undigested, but especially that which gathers in the bladder (its extreme lightness proves this; for 10everything that is digested is condensed), and also sweat; in these then is excreted (along with other matter) an identical substance to which this flavour is due. The case of things burnt is analogous. What heat fails to assimilate becomes the excrementary residue in animal bodies, and, in things burnt, ashes. That is why some people 15say that it was burnt earth that made the sea salt. To say that it was burnt earth is absurd; but to say that it was something like burnt earth is true. We must suppose that just as in the cases we have described, so in the world as a whole, everything that grows and is naturally generated always leaves an undigested residue, like that of things burnt, consisting of this sort of earth. All the earthy stuff in the dry exhalation is of this nature, 20and it is the dry exhalation which accounts for its great quantity. Now since, as we have said, the moist and the dry evaporations are mixed, some quantity of this stuff must always be included in the clouds and the water that are formed by condensation, and must redescend to the earth 25in rain. This process must always go on with such regularity as the sublunary world admits of. and it is the answer to the question how the sea comes to be salt.
It also explains why rain that comes from the south, and the first rains of autumn, are brackish. 35The south is the warmest of winds 30and it blows from dry and hot regions.
358b
1 τῷ δ' ἀπωθεῖν αἴθριος ἐνταῦθα, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἐναντίοις
ὑδατώδης. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ὁ νότος αἴθριος τοῖς περὶ τὴν
Λιβύην. πολὺ οὖν ἐν τῷ καταφερομένῳ ὕδατι συμβάλλεται
τοιοῦτον, καὶ τοῦ μετοπώρου πλατέα τὰ ὕδατα· ἀνάγκη
5 γὰρ τὰ βαρύτατα πρῶτα φέρεσθαι. ὥστ' ἐν ὅσοις ἔνεστι τῆς
τοιαύτης γῆς πλῆθος, ῥέπει τάχιστα κάτω ταῦτα. καὶ
θερμή γε ἡ θάλαττα διὰ τοῦτό ἐστιν· πάντα γὰρ ὅσα πεπύρωται,
ἔχει δυνάμει θερμότητα ἐν αὑτοῖς. ὁρᾶν δ' ἔξεστι
καὶ τὴν κονίαν καὶ τὴν τέφραν καὶ τὴν ὑπόστασιν τῶν ζῴων
10 καὶ τὴν ξηρὰν καὶ τὴν ὑγράν· καὶ τῶν θερμοτάτων γε
κατὰ τὴν κοιλίαν ζῴων συμβαίνει θερμοτάτην εἶναι τὴν
ὑπόστασιν. γίγνεται μὲν οὖν ἀεί τε πλατυτέρα διὰ ταύτην τὴν
αἰτίαν, ἀνάγεται δ' ἀεί τι μέρος αὐτῆς μετὰ τοῦ γλυκέος
(ἀλλ' ἔλαττον τοσούτῳ ὅσῳ καὶ ἐν τῷ ὑομένῳ τὸ ἁλμυρὸν
15 καὶ πλατὺ τοῦ γλυκέος ἔλαττον· διόπερ ἰσάζει ὡς ἐπίπαν
εἰπεῖν). ὅτι δὲ γίγνεται ἀτμίζουσα πότιμος καὶ οὐκ εἰς θάλατταν
συγκρίνεται τὸ ἀτμίζον, ὅταν συνιστῆται πάλιν,
πεπειραμένοι λέγωμεν. πάσχει δὲ καὶ τἆλλα ταὐτό· καὶ
γὰρ οἶνος καὶ πάντες οἱ χυμοί, ὅσοι ἂν ἀτμίσαντες πάλιν
20 εἰς ὑγρὸν συστῶσιν, ὕδωρ γίγνονται· πάθη γὰρ τἆλλα
διά τινα σύμμειξιν τοῦ ὕδατός ἐστιν, καὶ οἷον ἄν τι ᾖ τὸ
συμμειχθέν, τοιοῦτον ποιεῖ τὸν χυμόν. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων
ἐν ἄλλοις καιροῖς οἰκειοτέροις ποιητέον τὴν σκέψιν. νῦν
δὲ τοσοῦτον λέγωμεν, ὅτι τῆς θαλάττης ὑπαρχούσης αἰεί τι
25 ἀνάγεται καὶ γίγνεται πότιμον καὶ ἄνωθεν ἐν τῷ ὑομένῳ
κατέρχεται ἄλλο γεγενημένον, οὐ τὸ ἀναχθέν· καὶ διὰ βάρος
ὑφίσταται τῷ ποτίμῳ. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο οὔτ' ἐπιλείπει, ὥςπερ
οἱ ποταμοί, ἀλλ' ἢ τοῖς τόποις (τοῦτο δ' ἐπ' ἀμφοτέρων
ἀνάγκη συμβαίνειν ὁμοίως), οὔτε ἀεὶ τὰ αὐτὰ μέρη
30 διαμένει, οὔτε γῆς οὔτε θαλάττης, ἀλλ' ἢ μόνον ὁ πᾶς
ὄγκος. καὶ γὰρ καὶ περὶ γῆς ὁμοίως δεῖ ὑπολαβεῖν· τὸ
μὲν γὰρ ἀνέρχεται, τὸ δὲ πάλιν συγκαταβαίνει, καὶ τοὺς
τόπους μεταβάλλει τά τ' ἐπιπολάζοντα καὶ τὰ κατιόντα
πάλιν. ὅτι δ' ἐστὶν ἐν μείξει τινὸς τὸ ἁλμυρόν, δῆλον
35 οὐ μόνον ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐάν τις ἀγγεῖον
1Hence it carries little moist vapour and that is why it is hot. (It makes no difference even if this is not its true character and it is originally a cold wind, for it becomes warm on its way by incorporating with itself a great quantity of dry evaporation from the places it passes over.) The north wind, on the other hand, comb ing from moist regions, is full of vapour and therefore cold. It is dry in our part of the world because it drives the clouds away before it, but in the south it is rainy; just as the south is a dry wind in Libya. So the south wind charges the rain that falls with a great quantity of this stuff. Autumn rain is brackish because 5the heaviest water must fall first; so that that which contains the greatest quantity of this kind of earth descends quickest.
This, too, is why the sea is warm. Everything that has been exposed to fire contains heat potentially, as we see in the case of lye and ashes and 10the dry and liquid excreta of animals. Indeed those animals which are hottest in the belly have the hottest excreta.
The action of this cause is continually making the sea more salt, but some part of its saltness is always being drawn up with the sweet water. This is less than the sweet water in the same ratio in which the salt 15and brackish element in rain is less than the sweet, and so the saltness of the sea remains constant on the whole. Salt water when it turns into vapour becomes sweet, and the vapour does not form salt water when it condenses again. This I know by experiment. The same thing is true in every case of the kind: wine and all fluids that evaporate and 20condense back into a liquid state become water. They all are water modified by a certain admixture, the nature of which determines their flavour. But this subject must be considered on another more suitable occasion.
For the present let us say this. The sea is there and some of it is continually 25being drawn up and becoming sweet; this returns from above with the rain. But it is now different from what it was when it was drawn up, and its weight makes it sink below the sweet water. 30This process prevents the sea, as it does rivers, from drying up except from local causes (this must happen to sea and rivers alike).
This, too, is why the sea is warm. Everything that has been exposed to fire contains heat potentially, as we see in the case of lye and ashes and 10the dry and liquid excreta of animals. Indeed those animals which are hottest in the belly have the hottest excreta.
The action of this cause is continually making the sea more salt, but some part of its saltness is always being drawn up with the sweet water. This is less than the sweet water in the same ratio in which the salt 15and brackish element in rain is less than the sweet, and so the saltness of the sea remains constant on the whole. Salt water when it turns into vapour becomes sweet, and the vapour does not form salt water when it condenses again. This I know by experiment. The same thing is true in every case of the kind: wine and all fluids that evaporate and 20condense back into a liquid state become water. They all are water modified by a certain admixture, the nature of which determines their flavour. But this subject must be considered on another more suitable occasion.
For the present let us say this. The sea is there and some of it is continually 25being drawn up and becoming sweet; this returns from above with the rain. But it is now different from what it was when it was drawn up, and its weight makes it sink below the sweet water. 30This process prevents the sea, as it does rivers, from drying up except from local causes (this must happen to sea and rivers alike).
359a
1 πλάσας θῇ κήρινον εἰς τὴν θάλατταν, περιδήσας τὸ στόμα
τοιούτοις ὥστε μὴ παρεγχεῖσθαι τῆς θαλάττης· τὸ γὰρ εἰςιὸν
διὰ τῶν τοίχων τῶν κηρίνων γίγνεται πότιμον ὕδωρ· ὥςπερ
γὰρ δι' ἠθμοῦ τὸ γεῶδες ἀποκρίνεται καὶ τὸ ποιοῦν τὴν
5 ἁλμυρότητα διὰ τὴν σύμμειξιν. τοῦτο γὰρ αἴτιον καὶ τοῦ
βάρους (πλέον γὰρ ἕλκει τὸ ἁλμυρὸν ἢ τὸ πότιμον) καὶ
τοῦ πάχους· καὶ γὰρ τὸ πάχος διαφέρει τοσοῦτον ὥστε τὰ
πλοῖα ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτοῦ τῶν ἀγωγίμων βάρους ἐν μὲν τοῖς
ποταμοῖς ὀλίγου καταδύνειν, ἐν δὲ τῇ θαλάττῃ μετρίως
10 ἔχειν καὶ πλευστικῶς· διόπερ ἔνιοι τῶν ἐν τοῖς ποταμοῖς
γεμιζόντων διὰ ταύτην τὴν ἄγνοιαν ἐζημιώθησαν. τεκμήριον
δὲ τοῦ μειγνυμένου τὸ παχύτερον εἶναι τὸν ὄγκον· ἐὰν
γάρ τις ὕδωρ ἁλμυρὸν ποιήσῃ σφόδρα μείξας ἅλας, ἐπιπλέουσι
τὰ ᾠά, κἂν ᾖ πλήρη· σχεδὸν γὰρ ὥσπερ πηλὸς
15 γίγνεται· τοσοῦτον ἔχει σωματῶδες πλῆθος ἡ θάλαττα.
ταὐτὸ δὲ τοῦτο δρῶσι καὶ περὶ τὰς ταριχείας. εἰ δ' ἔστιν
ὥσπερ μυθολογοῦσί τινες ἐν Παλαιστίνῃ τοιαύτη λίμνη, εἰς
ἣν ἐάν τις ἐμβάλῃ συνδήσας ἄνθρωπον ἢ ὑποζύγιον ἐπιπλεῖν
καὶ οὐ καταδύεσθαι κατὰ τοῦ ὕδατος, μαρτύριον ἂν
20 εἴη τι τοῖς εἰρημένοις· λέγουσι γὰρ πικρὰν οὕτως εἶναι τὴν
λίμνην καὶ ἁλμυρὰν ὥστε μηδένα ἰχθὺν ἐγγίγνεσθαι, τὰ
δὲ ἱμάτια ῥύπτειν, ἐάν τις διασείσῃ βρέξας. ἔστι δὲ καὶ
τὰ τοιαῦτα σημεῖα πάντα τῶν εἰρημένων, ὅτι τὸ ἁλμυρὸν
ποιεῖ σῶμά τι, καὶ γεῶδές ἐστιν τὸ ἐνυπάρχον· ἔν τε γὰρ
25 τῇ Χαονίᾳ κρήνη τίς ἐστιν ὕδατος πλατυτέρου, ἀπορρεῖ δ'
αὕτη εἰς ποταμὸν πλησίον γλυκὺν μέν, ἰχθῦς δ' οὐκ ἔχοντα·
εἵλοντο γὰρ δή, ὡς οἱ ἐκεῖ μυθολογοῦσιν, ἐξουσίας δοθείσης
ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἡρακλέους, ὅτ' ἦλθεν ἄγων ἐκ τῆς Ἐρυθείας
τὰς βοῦς, ἅλας ἀντὶ τῶν ἰχθύων, οἳ γίγνονται αὐτοῖς ἐκ
30 τῆς κρήνης· τούτου γὰρ τοῦ ὕδατος ἀφέψοντές τι μέρος τιθέασι,
καὶ γίγνεται ψυχθέν, ὅταν ἀπατμίσῃ τὸ ὑγρὸν ἅμα
τῷ θερμῷ, ἅλες, οὐ χονδροὶ ἀλλὰ χαῦνοι καὶ λεπτοὶ ὥςπερ
χιών. εἰσίν τε τήν τε δύναμιν ἀσθενέστεροι τῶν ἄλλων
καὶ πλείους ἡδύνουσιν ἐμβληθέντες, καὶ τὴν χροιὰν οὐχ
35 ὁμοίως λευκοί. τοιοῦτον δ' ἕτερον γίγνεται καὶ ἐν Ὀμβρικοῖς·
1On the other hand the parts neither of the earth nor of the sea remain constant but only their whole bulk. For the same thing is true of the earth as of the sea: some of it is carried up and some comes down with the rain, and both that which remains on the surface and that which comes down again change their situations.
There is more evidence to prove that saltness is due to the admixture of some substance, besides that which we have adduced. Make a vessel of wax and put it in the sea, fastening its mouth in such a way as to prevent any water getting in. Then the water that percolates through the wax sides of the vessel is sweet, the earthy stuff, the admixture of which makes the water 5salt, being separated off as it were by a filter. It is this stuff which make salt water heavy (it weighs more than fresh water) and thick. The difference in consistency is such that ships with the same cargo very nearly sink in a river when they are quite 10fit to navigate in the sea. This circumstance has before now caused loss to shippers freighting their ships in a river. That the thicker consistency is due to an admixture of something is proved by the fact that if you make strong brine by the admixture of salt, eggs, even when they are full, float in it. It almost 15becomes like mud; such a quantity of earthy matter is there in the sea. The same thing is done in salting fish.
Again if, as is fabled, there is a lake in Palestine, such that if you bind a man or beast and throw it in it floats and does not sink, this would bear out 20what we have said. They say that this lake is so bitter and salt that no fish live in it and that if you soak clothes in it and shake them it cleans them. The following facts all of them support our theory that it is some earthy stuff in the water which makes it salt. 25In Chaonia there is a spring of brackish water that flows into a neighbouring river which is sweet but contains no fish. The local story is that when Heracles came from Erytheia driving the oxen and gave the inhabitants the choice, they chose salt in preference to fish. They get the salt from 30the spring. 35They boil off some of the water and let the rest stand; when it has cooled and the heat and moisture have evaporated together it gives them salt, not in lumps but loose and light like snow.
There is more evidence to prove that saltness is due to the admixture of some substance, besides that which we have adduced. Make a vessel of wax and put it in the sea, fastening its mouth in such a way as to prevent any water getting in. Then the water that percolates through the wax sides of the vessel is sweet, the earthy stuff, the admixture of which makes the water 5salt, being separated off as it were by a filter. It is this stuff which make salt water heavy (it weighs more than fresh water) and thick. The difference in consistency is such that ships with the same cargo very nearly sink in a river when they are quite 10fit to navigate in the sea. This circumstance has before now caused loss to shippers freighting their ships in a river. That the thicker consistency is due to an admixture of something is proved by the fact that if you make strong brine by the admixture of salt, eggs, even when they are full, float in it. It almost 15becomes like mud; such a quantity of earthy matter is there in the sea. The same thing is done in salting fish.
Again if, as is fabled, there is a lake in Palestine, such that if you bind a man or beast and throw it in it floats and does not sink, this would bear out 20what we have said. They say that this lake is so bitter and salt that no fish live in it and that if you soak clothes in it and shake them it cleans them. The following facts all of them support our theory that it is some earthy stuff in the water which makes it salt. 25In Chaonia there is a spring of brackish water that flows into a neighbouring river which is sweet but contains no fish. The local story is that when Heracles came from Erytheia driving the oxen and gave the inhabitants the choice, they chose salt in preference to fish. They get the salt from 30the spring. 35They boil off some of the water and let the rest stand; when it has cooled and the heat and moisture have evaporated together it gives them salt, not in lumps but loose and light like snow.
359b
1 ἔστι γάρ τις τόπος ἐν ᾧ πεφύκασι κάλαμοι καὶ σχοῖνος·
τούτων κατακάουσι, καὶ τὴν τέφραν ἐμβάλλοντες εἰς
ὕδωρ ἀφέψουσιν· ὅταν δὲ λίπωσί τι μέρος τοῦ ὕδατος, τοῦτο ψυχθὲν
ἁλῶν γίγνεται πλῆθος. ὅσα δ' ἐστὶν ἁλμυρὰ ῥεύματα
5 ποταμῶν ἢ κρηνῶν, τὰ πλεῖστα θερμά ποτε εἶναι δεῖ νομίζειν,
εἶτα τὴν μὲν ἀρχὴν ἀπεσβέσθαι τοῦ πυρός, δι' ἧς
δὲ διηθοῦνται γῆς, ἔτι μένειν οὖσαν οἷον κονίαν καὶ τέφραν.
εἰσὶ δὲ πολλαχοῦ καὶ κρῆναι καὶ ῥεύματα ποταμῶν παντοδαποὺς
ἔχοντα χυμούς, ὧν πάντων αἰτιατέον τὴν ἐνοῦσαν
10 ἢ ἐγγιγνομένην δύναμιν πυρός· καομένη γὰρ ἡ γῆ τῷ μᾶλλον
καὶ ἧττον παντοδαπὰς λαμβάνει μορφὰς καὶ χρόας
χυμῶν· στυπτηρίας γὰρ καὶ κονίας καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν
τοιούτων γίγνεται πλήρης δυνάμεων, δι' ὧν τὰ ἠθούμενα ὕδατα
ὄντα γλυκέα μεταβάλλει, καὶ τὰ μὲν ὀξέα γίγνεται,
15 καθάπερ ἐν τῇ Σικάνῃ τῆς Σικελίας· ἐκεῖ γὰρ ὀξάλμη
γίγνεται, καὶ χρῶνται καθάπερ ὄξει πρὸς ἔνια τῶν ἐδεσμάτων
αὐτῷ. ἔστι δὲ καὶ περὶ Λύγκον κρήνη τις ὕδατος
ὀξέος, περὶ δὲ τὴν Σκυθικὴν πικρά· τὸ δ' ἀπορρέον αὐτῆς
τὸν ποταμὸν εἰς ὃν εἰσβάλλει ποιεῖ πικρὸν ὅλον. αἱ δὲ
20 διαφοραὶ τούτων ἐκεῖθεν δῆλαι, ποῖοι χυμοὶ ἐκ ποίων
γίγνονται κράσεων· εἴρηται δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν χωρὶς ἐν ἄλλοις.
περὶ μὲν οὖν ὕδατος καὶ θαλάττης, δι' ἃς αἰτίας αἰεί τε
συνεχῶς εἰσι καὶ πῶς μεταβάλλουσι καὶ τίς ἡ φύσις
αὐτῶν, ἔτι δ' ὅσα πάθη κατὰ φύσιν αὐτοῖς συμβαίνει
25 ποιεῖν ἢ πάσχειν, εἴρηται σχεδὸν ἡμῖν περὶ τῶν
πλείστων.
1It is weaker than ordinary salt and added freely gives a sweet taste, and it is not as white as salt generally is. Another instance of this is found in Umbria. There is a place there where reeds and rushes grow. They burn some of these, put the ashes into water and boil it off. When a little water is left and has cooled it gives a quantity of salt.
Most salt 5rivers and springs must once have been hot. Then the original fire in them was extinguished but the earth through which they percolate preserves the character of lye or ashes. Springs and rivers with all kinds of flavours are found in many places. These flavours must in every case be due to the fire that is 10or was in them, for if you expose earth to different degrees of heat it assumes various kinds and shades of flavour. It becomes full of alum and lye and other things of the kind, and the fresh water percolates through these and changes its character. Sometimes it becomes acid 15as in Sicania, a part of Sicily. There they get a salt and acid water which they use as vinegar to season some of their dishes. In the neighbourhood of Lyncus, too, there is a spring of acid water, and in Scythia a bitter spring. The water from this makes the whole of the river into which it flows bitter. 20These differences are explained by a knowledge of the particular mixtures that determine different savours. But these have been explained in another treatise.
25We have now given an account of waters and the sea, why they persist, how they change, what their nature is, and have explained most of their natural operations and affections.
Most salt 5rivers and springs must once have been hot. Then the original fire in them was extinguished but the earth through which they percolate preserves the character of lye or ashes. Springs and rivers with all kinds of flavours are found in many places. These flavours must in every case be due to the fire that is 10or was in them, for if you expose earth to different degrees of heat it assumes various kinds and shades of flavour. It becomes full of alum and lye and other things of the kind, and the fresh water percolates through these and changes its character. Sometimes it becomes acid 15as in Sicania, a part of Sicily. There they get a salt and acid water which they use as vinegar to season some of their dishes. In the neighbourhood of Lyncus, too, there is a spring of acid water, and in Scythia a bitter spring. The water from this makes the whole of the river into which it flows bitter. 20These differences are explained by a knowledge of the particular mixtures that determine different savours. But these have been explained in another treatise.
25We have now given an account of waters and the sea, why they persist, how they change, what their nature is, and have explained most of their natural operations and affections.
Book 2,Chapter 4 (359b27–361b13)
περὶ δὲ πνευμάτων λέγωμεν, λαβόντες ἀρχὴν τὴν
εἰρημένην ἡμῖν ἤδη πρότερον. ἔστι γὰρ δύ' εἴδη τῆς ἀναθυμιάσεως,
ὥς φαμεν, ἡ μὲν ὑγρὰ ἡ δὲ ξηρά· καλεῖται
30 δ' ἡ μὲν ἀτμίς, ἡ δὲ τὸ μὲν ὅλον ἀνώνυμος, τῷ δ' ἐπὶ
μέρους ἀνάγκη χρωμένους καθόλου προσαγορεύειν αὐτὴν
οἷον καπνόν· ἔστι δ' οὔτε τὸ ὑγρὸν ἄνευ τοῦ ξηροῦ οὔτε τὸ ξηρὸν
ἄνευ τοῦ ὑγροῦ, ἀλλὰ πάντα ταῦτα λέγεται κατὰ τὴν
ὑπεροχήν. φερομένου δὴ τοῦ ἡλίου κύκλῳ, καὶ ὅταν μὲν
35 πλησιάζῃ, τῇ θερμότητι ἀνάγοντος τὸ ὑγρόν, πορρωτέρω
27Let us proceed to the theory of winds. Its basis is a distinction we have already made. We recognize two kinds of evaporation, one moist, the other dry. The former is called 30vapour: for the other there is no general name but we must call it a sort of smoke, applying to the whole of it a word that is proper to one of its forms. 35The moist cannot exist without the dry nor the dry without the moist: whenever we speak of either we mean that it predominates.
360a
1 δὲ γιγνομένου διὰ τὴν ψύξιν συνισταμένης πάλιν τῆς ἀναχθείσης
ἀτμίδος εἰς ὕδωρ (διὸ χειμῶνός τε μᾶλλον γίγνεται
τὰ ὕδατα, καὶ νύκτωρ ἢ μεθ' ἡμέραν· ἀλλ' οὐ δοκεῖ,
διὰ τὸ λανθάνειν τὰ νυκτερινὰ τῶν μεθ' ἡμέραν μᾶλλον),
5 τὸ δὴ κατιὸν ὕδωρ διαδίδοται πᾶν εἰς τὴν γῆν, ὑπάρχει
δ' ἐν τῇ γῇ πολὺ πῦρ καὶ πολλὴ θερμότης, καὶ ὁ
ἥλιος οὐ μόνον τὸ ἐπιπολάζον τῆς γῆς ὑγρὸν ἕλκει, ἀλλὰ
καὶ τὴν γῆν αὐτὴν ξηραίνει θερμαίνων· τῆς δ' ἀναθυμιάσεως,
ὥσπερ εἴρηται, διπλῆς οὔσης, τῆς μὲν ἀτμιδώδους τῆς
10 δὲ καπνώδους, ἀμφοτέρας ἀναγκαῖον γίγνεσθαι. τούτων δ'
ἡ μὲν ὑγροῦ πλέον ἔχουσα πλῆθος ἀναθυμίασις ἀρχὴ τοῦ
ὑομένου ὕδατός ἐστιν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, ἡ δὲ ξηρὰ
τῶν πνευμάτων ἀρχὴ καὶ φύσις πάντων. ταῦτα δὲ ὅτι τοῦτον
τὸν τρόπον ἀναγκαῖον συμβαίνειν, καὶ ἐξ αὐτῶν τῶν
15 ἔργων δῆλον· καὶ γὰρ τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν διαφέρειν ἀναγκαῖον,
καὶ τὸν ἥλιον καὶ τὴν ἐν τῇ γῇ θερμότητα ταῦτα
ποιεῖν οὐ μόνον δυνατὸν ἀλλ' ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστιν. ἐπειδὴ δ' ἕτερον
ἑκατέρας τὸ εἶδος, φανερὸν ὅτι διαφέρει, καὶ οὐχ ἡ αὐτή ἐστιν
ἥ τε ἀνέμου φύσις καὶ ἡ τοῦ ὑομένου ὕδατος, καθάπερ
20 τινὲς λέγουσιν· τὸν γὰρ αὐτὸν ἀέρα κινούμενον μὲν ἄνεμον
εἶναι, συνιστάμενον δὲ πάλιν ὕδωρ. ὁ μὲν οὖν ἀήρ, καθάπερ
ἐν τοῖς πρὸ τούτων λόγοις εἰρήκαμεν, γίγνεται ἐκ τούτων· ἡ
μὲν γὰρ ἀτμὶς ὑγρὸν καὶ ψυχρόν (εὐόριστον μὲν γὰρ ὡς
ὑγρόν, διὰ δὲ τὸ ὕδατος εἶναι ψυχρὸν τῇ οἰκείᾳ φύσει,
25 ὥσπερ ὕδωρ μὴ θερμανθέν), ὁ δὲ καπνὸς θερμὸν καὶ ξηρόν·
ὥστε καθάπερ ἐκ συμβόλων, συνίσταιτο ἂν ὁ ἀὴρ ὑγρὸς καὶ
θερμός. καὶ γὰρ ἄτοπον εἰ ὁ περὶ ἑκάστους περικεχυμένος
ἀὴρ οὗτος γίγνεται κινούμενος πνεῦμα, καὶ ὅθεν ἂν τύχῃ κινηθείς,
ἄνεμος ἔσται, ἀλλ' οὐ καθάπερ τοὺς ποταμοὺς ὑπολαμβάνομεν
30 οὐχ ὁπωσοῦν τοῦ ὕδατος εἶναι ῥέοντος, οὐδ' ἂν ἔχῃ
πλῆθος, ἀλλὰ δεῖ πηγαῖον εἶναι τὸ ῥέον· οὕτω γὰρ καὶ περὶ τῶν
ἀνέμων ἔχει· κινηθείη γὰρ ἂν πολὺ πλῆθος ἀέρος ὑπό τινος
μεγάλης πτώσεως, οὐκ ἔχον ἀρχὴν οὐδὲ πηγήν. μαρτυρεῖ
δὲ τὰ γιγνόμενα τοῖς εἰρημένοις· διὰ γὰρ τὸ συνεχῶς μὲν
35 μᾶλλον δὲ καὶ ἧττον καὶ πλείω καὶ ἐλάττω γίγνεσθαι τὴν
1Now when the sun in its circular course approaches, it draws up by its heat the moist evaporation: when it recedes the cold makes the vapour that had been raised condense back into water 5which falls and is distributed through the earth. (This explains why there is more rain in winter and more by night than by day: though the fact is not recognized because rain by night is more apt to escape observation than by day.) But there is a great quantity of fire and heat in the earth, and the sun not only draws up the moisture that lies on the surface of it, but warms and dries the earth itself. Consequently, since there are two kinds of evaporation, as we have said, one like vapour, 10the other like smoke, both of them are necessarily generated. That in which moisture predominates is the source of rain, as we explained before, while the dry evaporation is the source and substance of all winds. That things must necessarily take this course is clear from the resulting 15phenomena themselves, for the evaporation that is to produce them must necessarily differ; and the sun and the warmth in the earth not only can but must produce these evaporations.
Since the two evaporations are specifically distinct, wind and rain obviously differ and their substance is not the same, as 20those say who maintain that one and the same air when in motion is wind, but when it condenses again is water. Air, as we have explained in an earlier book, is made up of these as constituents. Vapour is moist and cold (for its fluidity is due to its moistness, and because it derives from water it is naturally cold, 25like water that has not been warmed): whereas the smoky evaporation is hot and dry. Hence each contributes a part, and air is moist and hot. It is absurd that this air that surrounds us should become wind when in motion, whatever be the source of its motion on the contrary the case of winds is like that of rivers. We do not call 30water that flows anyhow a river, even if there is a great quantity of it, but only if the flow comes from a spring. So too with the winds; a great quantity of air might be moved by the fall of some large object without flowing from any source or spring.
35The facts bear out our theory.
Since the two evaporations are specifically distinct, wind and rain obviously differ and their substance is not the same, as 20those say who maintain that one and the same air when in motion is wind, but when it condenses again is water. Air, as we have explained in an earlier book, is made up of these as constituents. Vapour is moist and cold (for its fluidity is due to its moistness, and because it derives from water it is naturally cold, 25like water that has not been warmed): whereas the smoky evaporation is hot and dry. Hence each contributes a part, and air is moist and hot. It is absurd that this air that surrounds us should become wind when in motion, whatever be the source of its motion on the contrary the case of winds is like that of rivers. We do not call 30water that flows anyhow a river, even if there is a great quantity of it, but only if the flow comes from a spring. So too with the winds; a great quantity of air might be moved by the fall of some large object without flowing from any source or spring.
35The facts bear out our theory.
360b
1 ἀναθυμίασιν, ἀεὶ νέφη τε καὶ πνεύματα γίγνεται κατὰ τὴν
ὥραν ἑκάστην ὡς πέφυκεν· διὰ δὲ τὸ ἐνίοτε μὲν τὴν ἀτμιδώδη
γίγνεσθαι πολλαπλασίαν ὁτὲ δὲ τὴν ξηρὰν καὶ καπνώδη,
ὁτὲ μὲν ἔπομβρα τὰ ἔτη γίγνεται καὶ ὑγρά, ὁτὲ δὲ
5 ἀνεμώδη καὶ αὐχμοί. ὁτὲ μὲν οὖν συμβαίνει καὶ τοὺς αὐχμοὺς
καὶ τὰς ἐπομβρίας πολλοὺς ἅμα καὶ κατὰ συνεχῆ
γίγνεσθαι χώραν, ὁτὲ δὲ κατὰ μέρη· πολλάκις γὰρ ἡ
μὲν κύκλῳ χώρα λαμβάνει τοὺς ὡραίους ὄμβρους ἢ καὶ
πλείους, ἐν δέ τινι μέρει ταύτης αὐχμός ἐστιν· ὁτὲ δὲ τοὐναντίον
10 τῆς κύκλῳ πάσης ἢ μετρίοις χρωμένης ὕδασιν ἢ
καὶ μᾶλλον αὐχμώσης, ἕν τι μόριον ὕδατος ἄφθονον λαμβάνει
πλῆθος. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι ὡς μὲν τὰ πολλὰ τὸ αὐτὸ
πάθος ἐπὶ πλείω διήκειν εἰκὸς χώραν, διὰ τὸ παραπλησίως
κεῖσθαι πρὸς τὸν ἥλιον τὰ σύνεγγυς, ἐὰν μή τι διάφορον
15 ἔχωσιν ἴδιον· οὐ μὴν ἀλλ' ἐνίοτε κατὰ τοδὶ μὲν τὸ μέρος ἡ
ξηρὰ ἀναθυμίασις ἐγένετο πλείων, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ἄλλο ἡ ἀτμιδώδης,
ὁτὲ δὲ τοὐναντίον. καὶ αὐτοῦ δὲ τούτου αἴτιον τὸ
ἑκατέραν μεταπίπτειν εἰς τὴν τῆς ἐχομένης χώρας ἀναθυμίασιν,
οἷον ἡ μὲν ξηρὰ κατὰ τὴν οἰκείαν ῥεῖ χώραν, ἡ δ'
20 ὑγρὰ πρὸς τὴν γειτνιῶσαν, ἢ καὶ εἰς τῶν πόρρω τινὰ τόπων
ἀπεώσθη ὑπὸ πνευμάτων· ὁτὲ δὲ αὕτη μὲν ἔμεινεν, ἡ δ'
ἐναντία ταὐτὸν ἐποίησεν. καὶ συμβαίνει τοῦτο πολλάκις,
ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ σώματος, ἐὰν ἡ ἄνω κοιλία ξηρὰ ᾖ, τὴν
κάτω ἐναντίως διακεῖσθαι, καὶ ταύτης ξηρᾶς οὔσης ὑγρὰν
25 εἶναι τὴν ἄνω καὶ ψυχράν, οὕτω καὶ περὶ τοὺς τόπους ἀντιπεριίστασθαι
καὶ μεταβάλλειν τὰς ἀναθυμιάσεις. ἔτι δὲ
μετά τε τοὺς ὄμβρους ἄνεμος ὡς τὰ πολλὰ γίγνεται ἐν ἐκείνοις
τοῖς τόποις καθ' οὓς ἂν συμπέσῃ γενέσθαι τοὺς ὄμβρους,
καὶ τὰ πνεύματα παύεται ὕδατος γενομένου. ταῦτα γὰρ
30 ἀνάγκη συμβαίνειν διὰ τὰς εἰρημένας ἀρχάς· ὕσαντός τε
γὰρ ἡ γῆ ξηραινομένη ὑπό τε τοῦ ἐν αὐτῇ θερμοῦ καὶ ὑπὸ
τοῦ ἄνωθεν ἀναθυμιᾶται, τοῦτο δ' ἦν ἀνέμου σῶμα· καὶ ὅταν
ἡ τοιαύτη ἀπόκρισις ᾖ καὶ ἄνεμοι κατέχωσι, παυομένων
διὰ τὸ ἀποκρίνεσθαι τὸ θερμὸν ἀεὶ καὶ ἀναφέρεσθαι εἰς τὸν
35 ἄνω τόπον συνίσταται ἡ ἀτμὶς ψυχομένη καὶ γίγνεται ὕδωρ·
1It is because the evaporation takes place uninterruptedly but differs in degree and quantity that clouds and winds appear in their natural proportion according to the season; and it is because there is now a great excess of the vaporous, now of the dry and smoky exhalation, that some years are rainy and wet, others 5windy and dry. Sometimes there is much drought or rain, and it prevails over a great and continuous stretch of country. At other times it is local; the surrounding country often getting seasonable or even excessive rains while there is drought in a certain part; or, contrariwise, 10all the surrounding country gets little or even no rain while a certain part gets rain in abundance. The reason for all this is that while the same affection is generally apt to prevail over a considerable district because adjacent places (unless there is something special 15to differentiate them) stand in the same relation to the sun, yet on occasion the dry evaporation will prevail in one part and the moist in another, or conversely. Again the reason for this latter is that each evaporation goes over to that of the neighbouring district: for instance, the dry evaporation circulates in its own place while the 20moist migrates to the next district or is even driven by winds to some distant place: or else the moist evaporation remains and the dry moves away. Just as in the case of the body when the stomach is dry the lower belly is often in the contrary state, and when it is dry 25the stomach is moist and cold, so it often happens that the evaporations reciprocally take one another's place and interchange.
Further, after rain wind generally rises in those places where the rain fell, and when rain has come on the wind ceases. 30These are necessary effects of the principles we have explained. After rain the earth is being dried by its own heat and that from above and gives off the evaporation which we saw to be the material cause of. wind. Again, suppose this secretion is present and wind prevails; the heat is continually being thrown off, rising to the 35upper region, and so the wind ceases; then the fall in temperature makes vapour form and condense into water.
Further, after rain wind generally rises in those places where the rain fell, and when rain has come on the wind ceases. 30These are necessary effects of the principles we have explained. After rain the earth is being dried by its own heat and that from above and gives off the evaporation which we saw to be the material cause of. wind. Again, suppose this secretion is present and wind prevails; the heat is continually being thrown off, rising to the 35upper region, and so the wind ceases; then the fall in temperature makes vapour form and condense into water.
361a
1 καὶ ὅταν εἰς ταὐτὸν συνωσθῶσι τὰ νέφη καὶ ἀντιπεριστῇ εἰς
αὐτὰ ἡ ψύξις, ὕδωρ γίγνεται καὶ καταψύχει τὴν ξηρὰν
ἀναθυμίασιν. παύουσί τε οὖν τὰ ὕδατα γιγνόμενα τοὺς ἀνέμους,
καὶ παυομένων αὐτὰ γίγνεται διὰ ταύτας τὰς αἰτίας. ἔτι δὲ
5 τοῦ γίγνεσθαι μάλιστα πνεύματα ἀπό τε τῆς ἄρκτου καὶ
μεσημβρίας τὸ αὐτὸ αἴτιον· πλεῖστοι γὰρ βορέαι καὶ νότοι
γίγνονται τῶν ἀνέμων· ὁ γὰρ ἥλιος τούτους μόνους οὐκ ἐπέρχεται
τοὺς τόπους, ἀλλὰ πρὸς τούτους καὶ ἀπὸ τούτων, ἐπὶ
δυσμὰς δὲ καὶ ἐπ' ἀνατολὰς ἀεὶ φέρεται· διὸ τὰ νέφη
10 συνίσταται ἐν τοῖς πλαγίοις, καὶ γίγνεται προσιόντος μὲν ἡ
ἀναθυμίασις τοῦ ὑγροῦ, ἀπιόντος δὲ πρὸς τὸν ἐναντίον τόπον
ὕδατα καὶ χειμῶνες. διὰ μὲν οὖν τὴν φορὰν τὴν ἐπὶ τροπὰς
καὶ ἀπὸ τροπῶν θέρος γίγνεται καὶ χειμών, καὶ ἀνάγεταί
τε ἄνω τὸ ὕδωρ καὶ γίγνεται πάλιν· ἐπεὶ δὲ πλεῖστον
15 μὲν καταβαίνει ὕδωρ ἐν τούτοις τοῖς τόποις ἐφ' οὓς τρέπεται
καὶ ἀφ' ὧν, οὗτοι δέ εἰσιν ὅ τε πρὸς ἄρκτον καὶ μεσημβρίαν,
ὅπου δὲ πλεῖστον ὕδωρ ἡ γῆ δέχεται, ἐνταῦθα πλείστην
ἀναγκαῖον γίγνεσθαι τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν παραπλησίως οἷον
ἐκ χλωρῶν ξύλων καπνόν, ἡ δ' ἀναθυμίασις αὕτη ἄνεμός
20 ἐστιν, εὐλόγως ἂν οὖν ἐντεῦθεν γίγνοιτο τὰ πλεῖστα καὶ κυριώτατα
τῶν πνευμάτων. καλοῦνται δ' οἱ μὲν ἀπὸ τῆς ἄρκτου
βορέαι, οἱ δὲ ἀπὸ τῆς μεσημβρίας νότοι. ἡ δὲ φορὰ
λοξὴ αὐτῶν ἐστιν· περὶ γὰρ τὴν γῆν πνέουσιν εἰς ὀρθὸν γιγνομένης
τῆς ἀναθυμιάσεως, ὅτι πᾶς ὁ κύκλῳ ἀὴρ συνέπεται
25 τῇ φορᾷ. διὸ καὶ ἀπορήσειεν ἄν τις ποτέρωθεν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῶν
πνευμάτων ἐστί, πότερον ἄνωθεν ἢ κάτωθεν· ἡ μὲν γὰρ κίνησις
ἄνωθεν καὶ πρὶν πνεῖν, ὁ δ' ἀὴρ ἐπίδηλος, κἂν ᾖ νέφος
ἢ ἀχλύς· σημαίνει γὰρ κινουμένην πνεύματος ἀρχὴν
πρὶν φανερῶς ἐληλυθέναι τὸν ἄνεμον, ὡς ἄνωθεν αὐτῶν
30 ἐχόντων τὴν ἀρχήν. ἐπεὶ δ' ἐστὶν ἄνεμος πλῆθός τι τῆς ξηρᾶς
ἐκ γῆς ἀναθυμιάσεως κινούμενον περὶ τὴν γῆν, δῆλον ὅτι
τῆς μὲν κινήσεως ἡ ἀρχὴ ἄνωθεν, τῆς δὲ ὕλης καὶ τῆς γενέσεως
κάτωθεν· ᾗ μὲν γὰρ ῥευσεῖται τὸ ἀνιόν, ἐκεῖθεν τὸ
αἴτιον· ἡ γὰρ φορὰ τῶν πορρωτέρω κυρία τῆς γῆς· καὶ
35 ἅμα κάτωθεν μὲν εἰς ὀρθὸν ἀναφέρεται, καὶ πᾶν ἰσχύει
μᾶλλον ἐγγύς, ἡ δὲ τῆς γενέσεως ἀρχὴ δῆλον ὡς ἐκ τῆς
1Water also forms and cools the dry evaporation when the clouds are driven together and the cold concentrated in them. These are the causes that make wind cease on the advent of rain, and rain fall on the cessation of wind.
The cause of 5the predominance of winds from the north and from the south is the same. (Most winds, as a matter of fact, are north winds or south winds.) These are the only regions which the sun does not visit: it approaches them and recedes from them, but its course is always over the-west and the east. Hence clouds 10collect on either side, and when the sun approaches it provokes the moist evaporation, and when it recedes to the opposite side there are storms and rain. So summer and winter are due to the sun's motion to and from the solstices, and water ascends and falls again for the same reason. Now since most 15rain falls in those regions towards which and from which the sun turns and these are the north and the south, and since most evaporation must take place where there is the greatest rainfall, just as green wood gives most smoke, and since this evaporation 20is wind, it is natural that the most and most important winds should come from these quarters. (The winds from the north are called Boreae, those from the south Noti.)
The course of winds is oblique: for though the evaporation rises straight up from the earth, they blow round it because all the surrounding air follows 25the motion of the heavens. Hence the question might be asked whether winds originate from above or from below. The motion comes from above: before we feel the wind blowing the air betrays its presence if there are clouds or a mist, for their motion shows that the wind has begun to blow before it has actually reached us; and this implies that 30the source of winds is above. But since wind is defined as 'a quantity of dry evaporation from the earth moving round the earth', it is clear that while the origin of the motion is from above, the matter and the generation of wind come from below. The oblique movement of the rising evaporation is caused from above: for the motion of the heavens determines the processes that are at a distance from the earth, and 35the motion from below is vertical and every cause is more active where it is nearest to the effect; but in its generation and origin wind plainly derives from the earth.
The cause of 5the predominance of winds from the north and from the south is the same. (Most winds, as a matter of fact, are north winds or south winds.) These are the only regions which the sun does not visit: it approaches them and recedes from them, but its course is always over the-west and the east. Hence clouds 10collect on either side, and when the sun approaches it provokes the moist evaporation, and when it recedes to the opposite side there are storms and rain. So summer and winter are due to the sun's motion to and from the solstices, and water ascends and falls again for the same reason. Now since most 15rain falls in those regions towards which and from which the sun turns and these are the north and the south, and since most evaporation must take place where there is the greatest rainfall, just as green wood gives most smoke, and since this evaporation 20is wind, it is natural that the most and most important winds should come from these quarters. (The winds from the north are called Boreae, those from the south Noti.)
The course of winds is oblique: for though the evaporation rises straight up from the earth, they blow round it because all the surrounding air follows 25the motion of the heavens. Hence the question might be asked whether winds originate from above or from below. The motion comes from above: before we feel the wind blowing the air betrays its presence if there are clouds or a mist, for their motion shows that the wind has begun to blow before it has actually reached us; and this implies that 30the source of winds is above. But since wind is defined as 'a quantity of dry evaporation from the earth moving round the earth', it is clear that while the origin of the motion is from above, the matter and the generation of wind come from below. The oblique movement of the rising evaporation is caused from above: for the motion of the heavens determines the processes that are at a distance from the earth, and 35the motion from below is vertical and every cause is more active where it is nearest to the effect; but in its generation and origin wind plainly derives from the earth.
361b
1 γῆς ἐστιν. ὅτι δ' ἐκ πολλῶν ἀναθυμιάσεων συνιουσῶν κατὰ
μικρόν, ὥσπερ αἱ τῶν ποταμῶν ἀρχαὶ γίγνονται νοτιζούσης
τῆς γῆς, δῆλον καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἔργων· ὅθεν γὰρ ἑκάστοτε
πνέουσιν, ἐλάχιστοι πάντες εἰσί, προϊόντες δὲ καὶ
5 πόρρω λαμπροὶ πνέουσιν. ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὰ περὶ τὴν ἄρκτον ἐν
τῷ χειμῶνι νήνεμα καὶ ἄπνοα, κατ' αὐτὸν ἐκεῖνον τὸν τόπον·
ἀλλὰ τὸ κατὰ μικρὸν ἀποπνέον καὶ λανθάνον ἔξω
προϊὸν ἤδη πνεῦμα γίγνεται λαμπρόν. τίς μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἡ τοῦ
ἀνέμου φύσις καὶ πῶς γίγνεται, ἔτι δὲ αὐχμῶν τε πέρι καὶ
10 ἐπομβρίας, καὶ διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν καὶ παύονται καὶ γίγνονται
μετὰ τοὺς ὄμβρους, διὰ τί τε βορέαι καὶ νότοι πλεῖστοι
τῶν ἀνέμων εἰσίν, εἴρηται· πρὸς δὲ τούτοις καὶ περὶ τῆς φορᾶς
αὐτῶν.
1The facts bear out the view that winds are formed by the gradual union of many evaporations just as rivers derive their sources from the water that oozes from the earth. Every wind is weakest in the spot from which it blows; as they proceed and 5leave their source at a distance they gather strength. Thus the winter in the north is windless and calm: that is, in the north itself; but, the breeze that blows from there so gently as to escape observation becomes a great wind as it passes on.
We have explained the nature and origin of wind, the occurrence of drought and 10rains, the reason why rain stops wind and wind rises after rain, the prevalence of north and south winds and also why wind moves in the way it does.
We have explained the nature and origin of wind, the occurrence of drought and 10rains, the reason why rain stops wind and wind rises after rain, the prevalence of north and south winds and also why wind moves in the way it does.
Book 2,Chapter 5 (361b14–363a20)
ὁ δ' ἥλιος καὶ παύει καὶ συνεξορμᾷ τὰ πνεύματα·
15 ἀσθενεῖς μὲν γὰρ καὶ ὀλίγας οὔσας τὰς ἀναθυμιάσεις μαραίνει
τῷ πλείονι θερμῷ τὸ ἐν τῇ ἀναθυμιάσει ἔλαττον ὄν,
καὶ διακρίνει. ἔτι δὲ αὐτὴν τὴν γῆν φθάνει ξηραίνων πρὶν
γενέσθαι ἔκκρισιν ἀθρόαν, ὥσπερ εἰς πολὺ πῦρ ἐὰν ὀλίγον
ἐμπέσῃ ὑπέκκαυμα, φθάνει πολλάκις πρὶν καπνὸν ποιῆσαι
20 κατακαυθέν. διὰ μὲν οὖν ταύτας τὰς αἰτίας καταπαύει τε
τὰ πνεύματα καὶ ἐξ ἀρχῆς γίγνεσθαι κωλύει, τῇ μὲν μαράνσει
καταπαύων, τῷ δὲ τάχει τῆς ξηρότητος γίγνεσθαι
κωλύων· διὸ περὶ Ὠρίωνος ἀνατολὴν μάλιστα γίγνεται νηνεμία,
καὶ μέχρι τῶν ἐτησίων καὶ προδρόμων. ὅλως δὲ γίγνονται
25 αἱ νηνεμίαι διὰ δύ' αἰτίας· ἢ γὰρ διὰ ψῦχος ἀποσβεννυμένης
τῆς ἀναθυμιάσεως, οἷον ὅταν γένηται πάγος
ἰσχυρός, ἢ καταμαραινομένης ὑπὸ τοῦ πνίγους. αἱ δὲ πλεῖσται
καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἀνὰ μέσον ὥραις, ἢ τῷ μήπω ἀναθυμιᾶσθαι,
ἢ τῷ ἤδη ἐξεληλυθέναι τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν καὶ ἄλλην
30 μήπω ἐπιρρεῖν. ἄκριτος δὲ καὶ χαλεπὸς ὁ Ὠρίων εἶναι δοκεῖ,
καὶ δύνων καὶ ἐπιτέλλων, διὰ τὸ ἐν μεταβολῇ ὥρας
συμβαίνειν τὴν δύσιν καὶ τὴν ἀνατολήν, θέρους ἢ χειμῶνος,
καὶ διὰ τὸ μέγεθος τοῦ ἄστρου ἡμερῶν γίγνεται πλῆθος·
αἱ δὲ μεταβολαὶ πάντων ταραχώδεις διὰ τὴν ἀοριστίαν
35 εἰσίν. οἱ δ' ἐτησίαι πνέουσι μετὰ τροπὰς καὶ κυνὸς ἐπιτολήν,
καὶ οὔτε τηνικαῦτα ὅτε μάλιστα πλησιάζει ὁ ἥλιος,
14The sun both checks the formation of winds and stimulates it. 15When the evaporation is small in amount and faint the sun wastes it and dissipates by its greater heat the lesser heat contained in the evaporation. It also dries up the earth, the source of the evaporation, before the latter has appeared in bulk: just as, when you throw a little fuel into a great fire, it is often 20burnt up before giving off any smoke. In these ways the sun checks winds and prevents them from rising at all: it checks them by wasting the evaporation, and prevents their rising by drying up the earth quickly. Hence calm is very apt to prevail about the rising of Orion and lasts until the coming of the Etesiae and their 'forerunners'.
25Calm is due to two causes. Either cold quenches the evaporation, for instance a sharp frost: or excessive heat wastes it. In the intermediate periods, too, the causes are generally either that the evaporation has not had time to develop or that it has passed away and 30there is none as yet to replace it.
Both the setting and the rising of Orion are considered to be treacherous and stormy, because they place at a change of season (namely of summer or winter; and because the size of the constellation makes its rise last over many days) and a state of change is always indefinite and therefore liable to disturbance.
35The Etesiae blow after the summer solstice and the rising of the dog-star: not at the time when the sun is closest nor when it is distant; and they blow by day and cease at night.
25Calm is due to two causes. Either cold quenches the evaporation, for instance a sharp frost: or excessive heat wastes it. In the intermediate periods, too, the causes are generally either that the evaporation has not had time to develop or that it has passed away and 30there is none as yet to replace it.
Both the setting and the rising of Orion are considered to be treacherous and stormy, because they place at a change of season (namely of summer or winter; and because the size of the constellation makes its rise last over many days) and a state of change is always indefinite and therefore liable to disturbance.
35The Etesiae blow after the summer solstice and the rising of the dog-star: not at the time when the sun is closest nor when it is distant; and they blow by day and cease at night.
362a
1 οὔτε ὅτε πόρρω· καὶ τὰς μὲν ἡμέρας πνέουσι, τὰς δὲ νύκτας
παύονται. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι πλησίον μὲν ὢν φθάνει ξηραίνων
πρὶν γενέσθαι τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν· ὅταν δ' ἀπέλθῃ μικρόν,
σύμμετρος ἤδη γίγνεται ἡ ἀναθυμίασις καὶ ἡ θερμότης, ὥστε
5 τὰ πεπηγότα ὕδατα τήκεσθαι, καὶ τῆς γῆς ξηραινομένης
ὑπό τε τῆς οἰκείας θερμότητος καὶ ὑπὸ τῆς τοῦ ἡλίου οἷον
τύφεσθαι καὶ θυμιᾶσθαι. τῆς δὲ νυκτὸς λωφῶσι διὰ τὸ
τὰ πεπηγότα τηκόμενα παύεσθαι διὰ τὴν ψυχρότητα τῶν
νυκτῶν. θυμιᾶται δ' οὔτε τὸ πεπηγὸς οὔτε τὸ μηδὲν ἔχον ξηρόν,
10 ἀλλ' ὅταν ἔχῃ τὸ ξηρὸν ὑγρότητα, τοῦτο θερμαινόμενον
θυμιᾶται. ἀποροῦσι δέ τινες διὰ τί βορέαι μὲν γίγνονται συνεχεῖς,
οὓς καλοῦμεν ἐτησίας, μετὰ τὰς θερινὰς τροπάς, νότοι
δὲ οὕτως οὐ γίγνονται μετὰ τὰς χειμερινάς. ἔχει δὲ οὐκ
ἀλόγως· γίγνονται μὲν γὰρ οἱ καλούμενοι λευκόνοτοι τὴν ἀντικειμένην
15 ὥραν, οὐχ οὕτως δὲ γίγνονται συνεχεῖς· διὸ λανθάνοντες
ποιοῦσιν ἐπιζητεῖν. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι ὁ μὲν βορέας ἀπὸ
τῶν ὑπὸ τὴν ἄρκτον πνεῖ τόπων, οἳ πλήρεις ὕδατος καὶ
χιόνος εἰσὶ πολλῆς, ὧν τηκομένων ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου μετὰ τὰς
θερινὰς τροπὰς μᾶλλον ἢ ἐν αὐταῖς πνέουσιν οἱ ἐτησίαι·
20 οὕτω γὰρ καὶ τὰ πνίγη γίγνεται, οὐχ ὅταν μάλιστα πλησιάζῃ
πρὸς ἄρκτον, ἀλλ' ὅταν πλείων μὲν ᾖ χρόνος θερμαίνοντι,
ἔτι δὲ ἐγγύς. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ μετὰ χειμερινὰς τροπὰς
πνέουσιν οἱ ὀρνιθίαι· καὶ γὰρ οὗτοι ἐτησίαι εἰσὶν ἀσθενεῖς·
ἐλάττους δὲ καὶ ὀψιαίτεροι τῶν ἐτησίων πνέουσιν· ἑβδομηκοστῇ
25 γὰρ ἄρχονται πνεῖν διὰ τὸ πόρρω ὄντα τὸν ἥλιον ἐνισχύειν
ἧττον. οὐ συνεχεῖς δ' ὁμοίως πνέουσι, διότι τὰ μὲν
ἐπιπολῆς καὶ ἀσθενῆ τότε ἀποκρίνεται, τὰ δὲ μᾶλλον πεπηγότα
πλείονος δεῖται θερμότητος. διὸ διαλείποντες οὗτοι
πνέουσιν, ἕως ἂν ἐπὶ τροπαῖς πάλιν ταῖς θεριναῖς πνεύσωσιν οἱ
30 ἐτησίαι, ἐπεὶ θέλει γε ὅτι μάλιστα συνεχῶς ἐντεῦθεν ἀεὶ
πνεῖν ἄνεμος. ὁ δὲ νότος ἀπὸ τῆς θερινῆς τροπῆς πνεῖ, καὶ
οὐκ ἀπὸ τῆς ἑτέρας ἄρκτου. δύο γὰρ ὄντων τμημάτων τῆς
δυνατῆς οἰκεῖσθαι χώρας, τῆς μὲν πρὸς τὸν ἄνω πόλον,
καθ' ἡμᾶς, τῆς δὲ πρὸς τὸν ἕτερον καὶ πρὸς μεσημβρίαν,
35 καὶ οὔσης οἷον τυμπάνου (τοιοῦτον γὰρ σχῆμα τῆς γῆς ἐκτέμνουσιν
1The reason is that when the sun is near it dries up the earth before evaporation has taken place, but when it has receded a little its heat and the evaporation are present in the right proportion; 5so the ice melts and the earth, dried by its own heat and that of the sun, smokes and vapours. They abate at night because the cold pf the nights checks the melting of the ice. What is frozen gives off no evaporation, nor does that which contains no dryness at all: 10it is only where something dry contains moisture that it gives off evaporation under the influence of heat.
The question is sometimes asked: why do the north winds which we call the Etesiae blow continuously after the summer solstice, when there are no corresponding south winds after the winter solstice? The facts are reasonable enough: for the so-called 'white south winds' do blow at the corresponding 15season, though they are not equally continuous and so escape observation and give rise to this inquiry. The reason for this is that the north wind I from the arctic regions which are full of water and snow. The sun thaws them and so the Etesiae blow: after rather than at the summer solstice. (20For the greatest heat is developed not when the sun is nearest to the north, but when its heat has been felt for a considerable period and it has not yet receded far. The 'bird winds' blow in the same way after the winter solstice. They, too, are weak Etesiae, but they blow less and later than the Etesiae. 25They begin to blow only on the seventieth day because the sun is distant and therefore weaker. They do not blow so continuously because only things on the surface of the earth and offering little resistance evaporate then, the thoroughly frozen parts requiring greater heat to melt them. So they blow intermittently till the true 30Etesiae come on again at the summer solstice: for from that time onwards the wind tends to blow continuously.) But the south wind blows from the tropic of Cancer and not from the antarctic region.
There are two inhabitable sections of the earth: one near our upper, or nothern pole, the other near the other or southern pole; and 35their shape is like that of a tambourine.
The question is sometimes asked: why do the north winds which we call the Etesiae blow continuously after the summer solstice, when there are no corresponding south winds after the winter solstice? The facts are reasonable enough: for the so-called 'white south winds' do blow at the corresponding 15season, though they are not equally continuous and so escape observation and give rise to this inquiry. The reason for this is that the north wind I from the arctic regions which are full of water and snow. The sun thaws them and so the Etesiae blow: after rather than at the summer solstice. (20For the greatest heat is developed not when the sun is nearest to the north, but when its heat has been felt for a considerable period and it has not yet receded far. The 'bird winds' blow in the same way after the winter solstice. They, too, are weak Etesiae, but they blow less and later than the Etesiae. 25They begin to blow only on the seventieth day because the sun is distant and therefore weaker. They do not blow so continuously because only things on the surface of the earth and offering little resistance evaporate then, the thoroughly frozen parts requiring greater heat to melt them. So they blow intermittently till the true 30Etesiae come on again at the summer solstice: for from that time onwards the wind tends to blow continuously.) But the south wind blows from the tropic of Cancer and not from the antarctic region.
There are two inhabitable sections of the earth: one near our upper, or nothern pole, the other near the other or southern pole; and 35their shape is like that of a tambourine.
362b
1 αἱ ἐκ τοῦ κέντρου αὐτῆς ἀγόμεναι, καὶ
ποιοῦσι δύο κώνους, τὸν μὲν ἔχοντα βάσιν τὸν τροπικόν, τὸν
δὲ τὸν διὰ παντὸς φανερόν, τὴν δὲ κορυφὴν ἐπὶ τοῦ μέσου
τῆς γῆς· τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον πρὸς τὸν κάτω πόλον ἕτεροι
5 δύο κῶνοι τῆς γῆς ἐκτμήματα ποιοῦσι. ταῦτα δ' οἰκεῖσθαι
μόνα δυνατόν, καὶ οὔτ' ἐπέκεινα τῶν τροπῶν (σκιὰ γὰρ οὐκ
ἂν ἦν πρὸς ἄρκτον, νῦν δ' ἀοίκητοι πρότερον γίγνονται οἱ τόποι
πρὶν ἢ ὑπολείπειν ἢ μεταβάλλειν τὴν σκιὰν πρὸς μεσημβρίαν)
τά θ' ὑπὸ τὴν ἄρκτον ὑπὸ ψύχους ἀοίκητα. φέρεται
10 δὲ καὶ ὁ στέφανος κατὰ τοῦτον τὸν τόπον· φαίνεται
γὰρ ὑπὲρ κεφαλῆς γιγνόμενος ἡμῖν, ὅταν ᾖ κατὰ τὸν μεσημβρινόν.
διὸ καὶ γελοίως γράφουσι νῦν τὰς περιόδους τῆς
γῆς· γράφουσι γὰρ κυκλοτερῆ τὴν οἰκουμένην, τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶν
ἀδύνατον κατά τε τὰ φαινόμενα καὶ κατὰ τὸν λόγον. ὅ τε
15 γὰρ λόγος δείκνυσιν ὅτι ἐπὶ πλάτος μὲν ὥρισται, τὸ δὲ κύκλῳ
συνάπτειν ἐνδέχεται διὰ τὴν κρᾶσιν, —οὐ γὰρ ὑπερβάλλει
τὰ καύματα καὶ τὸ ψῦχος κατὰ μῆκος, ἀλλ' ἐπὶ
πλάτος, ὥστ' εἰ μή που κωλύει θαλάττης πλῆθος, ἅπαν
εἶναι πορεύσιμον, —καὶ κατὰ τὰ φαινόμενα περί τε τοὺς πλοῦς
20 καὶ τὰς πορείας· πολὺ γὰρ τὸ μῆκος διαφέρει τοῦ πλάτους.
τὸ γὰρ ἀπὸ Ἡρακλείων στηλῶν μέχρι τῆς Ἰνδικῆς τοῦ ἐξ Αἰθιοπίας
πρὸς τὴν Μαιῶτιν καὶ τοὺς ἐσχατεύοντας τῆς Σκυθίας
τόπους πλέον ἢ πέντε πρὸς τρία τὸ μέγεθός ἐστιν, ἐάν τέ
τις τοὺς πλοῦς λογίζηται καὶ τὰς ὁδούς, ὡς ἐνδέχεται λαμβάνειν
25 τῶν τοιούτων τὰς ἀκριβείας. καίτοι ἐπὶ πλάτος μὲν
μέχρι τῶν ἀοικήτων ἴσμεν τὴν οἰκουμένην· ἔνθα μὲν γὰρ
διὰ ψῦχος οὐκέτι κατοικοῦσιν, ἔνθα δὲ διὰ τὴν ἀλέαν. τὰ
δὲ τῆς Ἰνδικῆς ἔξω καὶ τῶν στηλῶν τῶν Ἡρακλείων διὰ τὴν
θάλατταν οὐ φαίνεται συνείρειν, τῷ συνεχῶς εἶναι πᾶσαν
30 οἰκουμένην)· ἐπεὶ δ' ὁμοίως ἔχειν ἀνάγκη τόπον τινὰ πρὸς
τὸν ἕτερον πόλον ὥσπερ ὃν ἡμεῖς οἰκοῦμεν πρὸς τὸν ὑπὲρ
ἡμῶν, δῆλον ὡς ἀνάλογον ἕξει τά τ' ἄλλα καὶ τῶν πνευμάτων
ἡ στάσις· ὥστε καθάπερ ἐνταῦθα βορέας ἐστίν, κἀκείνοις
ἀπὸ τῆς ἐκεῖ ἄρκτου τις ἄνεμος οὕτως ὤν, ὃν οὐδὲν δυνατὸν
35 διέχειν δεῦρο, ἐπεὶ οὐδ' ὁ βορέας οὗτος εἰς τὴν ἐνταῦθα
1If you draw lines from the centre of the earth they cut out a drum-shaped figure. The lines form two cones; the base of the one is the tropic, of the other the ever visible circle, their vertex is at the centre of the earth. 5Two other cones towards the south pole give corresponding segments of the earth. These sections alone are habitable. Beyond the tropics no one can live: for there the shade would not fall to the north, whereas the earth is known to be uninhabitable before the sun is in the zenith or the shade is thrown to the south: and the regions below the Bear are uninhabitable because of the cold.
10(The Crown, too, moves over this region: for it is in the zenith when it is on our meridian.)
So we see that the way in which they now describe the geography of the earth is ridiculous. They depict the inhabited earth as round, but both ascertained facts and general considerations show this to be impossible. 15If we reflect we see that the inhabited region is limited in breadth, while the climate admits of its extending all round the earth. For we meet with no excessive heat or cold in the direction of its length but only in that of its breadth; so that there is nothing to prevent our travelling round the earth unless the extent of the sea presents an obstacle anywhere. The records of journeys by sea and land bear this out. 20They make the length far greater than the breadth. If we compute these voyages and journeys the distance from the Pillars of Heracles to India exceeds that from Aethiopia to Maeotis and the northernmost Scythians by a ratio of more than 5 to 3, 25as far as such matters admit of accurate statement. Yet we know the whole breadth of the region we dwell in up to the uninhabited parts: in one direction no one lives because of the cold, in the other because of the heat.
But it is the sea which divides as it seems the parts beyond India from those beyond the Pillars of Heracles and prevents the earth from being inhabited all round.
30Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole, it will clearly correspond in the ordering of its winds as well as in other things.
10(The Crown, too, moves over this region: for it is in the zenith when it is on our meridian.)
So we see that the way in which they now describe the geography of the earth is ridiculous. They depict the inhabited earth as round, but both ascertained facts and general considerations show this to be impossible. 15If we reflect we see that the inhabited region is limited in breadth, while the climate admits of its extending all round the earth. For we meet with no excessive heat or cold in the direction of its length but only in that of its breadth; so that there is nothing to prevent our travelling round the earth unless the extent of the sea presents an obstacle anywhere. The records of journeys by sea and land bear this out. 20They make the length far greater than the breadth. If we compute these voyages and journeys the distance from the Pillars of Heracles to India exceeds that from Aethiopia to Maeotis and the northernmost Scythians by a ratio of more than 5 to 3, 25as far as such matters admit of accurate statement. Yet we know the whole breadth of the region we dwell in up to the uninhabited parts: in one direction no one lives because of the cold, in the other because of the heat.
But it is the sea which divides as it seems the parts beyond India from those beyond the Pillars of Heracles and prevents the earth from being inhabited all round.
30Now since there must be a region bearing the same relation to the southern pole as the place we live in bears to our pole, it will clearly correspond in the ordering of its winds as well as in other things.
363a
1 οἰκουμένην πᾶσάν ἐστιν· ἔστιν γὰρ ὥσπερ ἀπόγειον τὸ πνεῦμα
τὸ βόρειον [ἕως ὁ βορέας οὗτος εἰς τὴν ἐνταῦθα οἰκουμένην
πνεῖ]. ἀλλὰ διὰ τὸ τὴν οἴκησιν κεῖσθαι ταύτην πρὸς ἄρκτον,
πλεῖστοι βορέαι πνέουσιν. ὅμως δὲ καὶ ἐνταῦθα ἐλλείπει καὶ
5 οὐ δύναται πόρρω διήκειν, ἐπεὶ περὶ τὴν ἔξω Λιβύης θάλατταν
τὴν νοτίαν, ὥσπερ ἐνταῦθα οἱ βορέαι καὶ οἱ νότοι πνέουσιν,
οὕτως ἐκεῖ εὖροι καὶ ζέφυροι διαδεχόμενοι συνεχεῖς ἀεὶ
πνέουσιν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν ὁ νότος οὐκ ἔστιν ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἑτέρου πόλου πνέων
ἄνεμος, δῆλον. ἐπεὶ δ' οὔτ' ἐκεῖνος, οὔτε ὁ ἀπὸ χειμερινῆς τροπῆς
10 (δέοι γὰρ ἂν ἄλλον ἀπὸ θερινῆς εἶναι τροπῆς· οὕτως γὰρ
τὸ ἀνάλογον ἀποδώσει· νῦν δ' οὐκ ἔστιν· εἷς γὰρ μόνος φαίνεται
πνέων ἐκ τῶν ἐκεῖθεν τόπων)· ὥστ' ἀνάγκη τὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ
κατακεκαυμένου τόπου πνέοντα ἄνεμον εἶναι νότον. ἐκεῖνος δ'
ὁ τόπος διὰ τὴν τοῦ ἡλίου γειτνίασιν οὐκ ἔχει ὕδατα καὶ νομάς,
15 αἳ διὰ τὴν πῆξιν ποιήσουσιν ἐτησίας· ἀλλὰ διὰ τὸ τὸν
τόπον εἶναι πολὺ πλείω ἐκεῖνον καὶ ἀναπεπταμένον, μείζων
καὶ πλείων καὶ μᾶλλον ἀλεεινὸς ἄνεμος ὁ νότος ἐστὶ τοῦ βορέου,
καὶ διήκει μᾶλλον δεῦρο ἢ οὗτος ἐκεῖ. τίς μὲν οὖν αἰτία
τούτων ἐστὶ τῶν ἀνέμων, καὶ πῶς ἔχουσι πρὸς ἀλλήλους,
20 εἴρηται.
1So just as we have a north wind here, they must have a corresponding wind from the antarctic. This wind cannot reach us since our own north wind is like a land breeze and does not even reach the limits of the region we live in. The prevalence of north winds here is due to our lying near the north. Yet even here they give out and 5fail to penetrate far: in the southern sea beyond Libya east and west winds are always blowing alternately, like north and south winds with us. So it is clear that the south wind is not the wind that blows from the south pole. It is neither that nor the wind from the winter tropic. 10For symmetry would require another wind blowing from the summer tropic, which there is not, since we know that only one wind blows from that quarter. So the south wind clearly blows from the torrid region. Now the sun is so near to that region that it has no water, or snow 15which might melt and cause Etesiae. But because that place is far more extensive and open the south wind is greater and stronger and warmer than the north and penetrates farther to the north than the north wind does to the south.
The origin of these winds and their relation to one another 20has now been explained.
The origin of these winds and their relation to one another 20has now been explained.
Book 2,Chapter 6 (363a21–365a13)
περὶ δὲ θέσεως αὐτῶν, καὶ τίνες ἐναντίοι τίσι, καὶ
ποίους ἅμα πνεῖν ἐνδέχεται καὶ ποίους οὔ, ἔτι δὲ καὶ τίνες καὶ
πόσοι τυγχάνουσιν ὄντες, καὶ πρὸς τούτοις περὶ τῶν ἄλλων
παθημάτων ὅσα μὴ συμβέβηκεν ἐν τοῖς προβλήμασιν εἰρῆσθαι
25 τοῖς κατὰ μέρος, νῦν λέγωμεν. δεῖ δὲ περὶ τῆς θέσεως
ἅμα τοὺς λόγους ἐκ τῆς ὑπογραφῆς θεωρεῖν. γέγραπται
μὲν οὖν, τοῦ μᾶλλον εὐσήμως ἔχειν, ὁ τοῦ ὁρίζοντος
κύκλος· διὸ καὶ στρογγύλος. δεῖ δὲ νοεῖν αὐτοῦ τὸ ἕτερον
ἔκτμημα τὸ ὑφ' ἡμῶν οἰκούμενον· ἔσται γὰρ κἀκεῖνο διελεῖν
30 τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον. ὑποκείσθω δὲ πρῶτον μὲν ἐναντία κατὰ
τόπον εἶναι τὰ πλεῖστον ἀπέχοντα κατὰ τόπον, ὥσπερ κατ'
εἶδος ἐναντία τὰ πλεῖστον ἀπέχοντα κατὰ τὸ εἶδος· πλεῖστον
δ' ἀπέχει κατὰ τόπον τὰ κείμενα πρὸς ἄλληλα κατὰ
διάμετρον. ἔστω οὖν τὸ μὲν ἐφ' ᾧ Α δυσμὴ ἰσημερινή, ἐναντίος
21Let us now explain the position of the winds, their oppositions, which can blow simultaneously with which, and which cannot, their names and number, and any other of their affections that have not been treated in the 'particular questions'. What we say about their position must be followed with the help of the figure. For clearness' sake we have drawn the circle of the horizon, which is round, but it represents the zone in which we live; for that can be divided 30in the same way. Let us also begin by laying down that those things are locally contrary which are locally most distant from one another, just as things specifically most remote from one another are specific contraries. Now things that face one another from opposite ends of a diameter are locally most distant from one another. (See diagram.)
Let A be the point where the sun sets at the equinox and B, the point opposite, the place where it rises at the equinox.
Let A be the point where the sun sets at the equinox and B, the point opposite, the place where it rises at the equinox.
363b
1 δὲ τούτῳ τόπος, ἐφ' οὗ τὸ Β, ἀνατολὴ ἰσημερινή· ἄλλη
δὲ διάμετρος ταύτην πρὸς ὀρθὴν τέμνουσα, ἧς τὸ ἐφ' οὗ Η
ἔστω ἄρκτος· τούτῳ δ' ἐναντίον ἐξ ἐναντίας, τὸ ἐφ' οὗ Θ, μεσημβρία·
τὸ δ' ἐφ' οὗ Ζ ἀνατολὴ θερινή, τὸ δ' ἐφ' ᾧ Ε
5 δυσμὴ θερινή, τὸ δ' ἐφ' οὗ Δ ἀνατολὴ χειμερινή, τὸ δ'
ἐφ' οὗ Γ δυσμὴ χειμερινή. ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ Ζ ἤχθω διάμετρος
ἐπὶ τὸ Γ, καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ Δ ἐπὶ τὸ Ε. ἐπεὶ οὖν τὰ μὲν πλεῖστον
ἀπέχοντα κατὰ τόπον ἐναντία κατὰ τόπον, πλεῖστον δ'
ἀπέχει τὰ κατὰ διάμετρον, ἀναγκαῖον καὶ τῶν πνευμάτων
10 ταῦτα ἀλλήλοις ἐναντία εἶναι, ὅσα κατὰ διάμετρόν
ἐστιν. καλεῖται δὲ κατὰ τὴν θέσιν τῶν τόπων τὰ πνεύματα
ὧδε· ζέφυρος μὲν τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ Α· τοῦτο γὰρ δυσμὴ ἰσημερινή.
ἐναντίος δὲ τούτῳ ἀπηλιώτης ἀπὸ τοῦ Β· τοῦτο γὰρ
ἀνατολὴ ἰσημερινή. βορέας δὲ <καὶ> ἀπαρκτίας ἀπὸ τοῦ Η·
15 ἐνταῦθα γὰρ ἡ ἄρκτος. ἐναντίος δὲ τούτῳ νότος ἀπὸ τοῦ Θ·
μεσημβρία τε γὰρ αὕτη ἀφ' ἧς πνεῖ, καὶ τὸ Θ τῷ Η
ἐναντίον· κατὰ διάμετρον γάρ. ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ Ζ καικίας· αὕτη
γὰρ ἀνατολὴ θερινή. ἐναντίος δ' οὐχ ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ Ε πνέων,
ἀλλ' ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ Γ λίψ· οὗτος γὰρ ἀπὸ δυσμῆς χειμερινῆς,
20 ἐναντίος δὲ τούτῳ (κατὰ διάμετρον γὰρ κεῖται). ἀπὸ δὲ
τοῦ Δ εὖρος· οὗτος γὰρ ἀπ' ἀνατολῆς χειμερινῆς πνεῖ,
γειτνιῶν τῷ νότῳ· διὸ καὶ πολλάκις εὐρόνοτοι λέγονται
πνεῖν. ἐναντίος δὲ τούτῳ οὐχ ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ Γ λίψ, ἀλλ' ὁ ἀπὸ
τοῦ Ε, ὃν καλοῦσιν οἱ μὲν ἀργέστην; οἱ δ' ὀλυμπίαν, οἱ δὲ
25 σκίρωνα· οὗτος γὰρ ἀπὸ δυσμῆς θερινῆς πνεῖ, καὶ κατὰ
διάμετρον αὐτῷ κεῖται μόνος. οὗτοι μὲν οὖν οἱ κατὰ διάμετρόν
τε κείμενοι ἄνεμοι καὶ οἷς εἰσιν ἐναντίοι· ἕτεροι δ'
εἰσὶν καθ' οὓς οὐκ ἔστιν ἐναντία πνεύματα. ἀπὸ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ Ι
ὃν καλοῦσι θρασκίαν· οὗτος γὰρ μέσος ἀργέστου καὶ ἀπαρκτίου·
30 ἀπὸ δὲ τοῦ Κ ὃν καλοῦσιν μέσην· οὗτος γὰρ μέσος καικίου
καὶ ἀπαρκτίου. ἡ δὲ τοῦ ΙΚ διάμετρος βούλεται μὲν κατὰ
τὸν διὰ παντὸς εἶναι φαινόμενον, οὐκ ἀκριβοῖ δέ. ἐναντία
δὲ τούτοις οὐκ ἔστι τοῖς πνεύμασιν, οὔτε τῷ
μέσῃ (ἔπνει γὰρ ἄν τις ἐφ' οὗ τὸ Μ· τοῦτο γὰρ κατὰ διάμετρον)
1Let there be another diameter cutting this at right angles, and let the point H on it be the north and its diametrical opposite O the south. Let Z be the rising of the sun at the summer solstice and E 5its setting at the summer solstice; D its rising at the winter solstice, and G its setting at the winter solstice. Draw a diameter from Z to G from D to E. Then since those things are locally contrary which are most distant from one another in space, and points diametrically opposite are most distant from one another, 10those winds must necessarily be contrary to one another that blow from opposite ends of a diameter.
The names of the winds according to their position are these. Zephyrus is the wind that blows from A, this being the point where the sun sets at the equinox. Its contrary is Apeliotes blowing from B the point where the sun rises at the equinox. The wind blowing from H, the north, is the true north wind, called Aparctias: 15while Notus blowing from O is its contrary; for this point is the south and O is contrary to H, being diametrically opposite to it. Caecias blows from Z, where the sun rises at the summer solstice. Its contrary is not the wind blowing from E but Lips blowing from G. For Lips blows from the point where the sun sets at the winter solstice 20and is diametrically opposite to Caecias: so it is its contrary. Eurus blows from D, coming from the point where the sun rises at the winter solstice. It borders on Notus, and so we often find that people speak of 'Euro-Noti'. Its contrary is not Lips blowing from G but the wind that blows from E which some call Argestes, some Olympias, and some 25Sciron. This blows from the point where the sun sets at the summer solstice, and is the only wind that is diametrically opposite to Eurus. These are the winds that are diametrically opposite to one another and their contraries.
There are other winds which have no contraries. The wind they call Thrascias, which lies between Argestes and Aparctias, blows from I; 30and the wind called Meses, which lies between Caecias and Aparctias, from K. (The line IK nearly coincides with the ever visible circle, but not quite.) These winds have no contraries.
The names of the winds according to their position are these. Zephyrus is the wind that blows from A, this being the point where the sun sets at the equinox. Its contrary is Apeliotes blowing from B the point where the sun rises at the equinox. The wind blowing from H, the north, is the true north wind, called Aparctias: 15while Notus blowing from O is its contrary; for this point is the south and O is contrary to H, being diametrically opposite to it. Caecias blows from Z, where the sun rises at the summer solstice. Its contrary is not the wind blowing from E but Lips blowing from G. For Lips blows from the point where the sun sets at the winter solstice 20and is diametrically opposite to Caecias: so it is its contrary. Eurus blows from D, coming from the point where the sun rises at the winter solstice. It borders on Notus, and so we often find that people speak of 'Euro-Noti'. Its contrary is not Lips blowing from G but the wind that blows from E which some call Argestes, some Olympias, and some 25Sciron. This blows from the point where the sun sets at the summer solstice, and is the only wind that is diametrically opposite to Eurus. These are the winds that are diametrically opposite to one another and their contraries.
There are other winds which have no contraries. The wind they call Thrascias, which lies between Argestes and Aparctias, blows from I; 30and the wind called Meses, which lies between Caecias and Aparctias, from K. (The line IK nearly coincides with the ever visible circle, but not quite.) These winds have no contraries.
364a
1 οὔτε τῷ Ι, τῷ θρασκίᾳ (ἔπνει γὰρ ἂν ἀπὸ τοῦ Ν·
τοῦτο γὰρ κατὰ διάμετρον τὸ σημεῖον, εἰ μὴ ἀπ' αὐτοῦ
καὶ ἐπ' ὀλίγον πνεῖ τις ἄνεμος, ὃν καλοῦσιν οἱ περὶ τὸν τόπον
ἐκεῖνον φοινικίαν). τὰ μὲν οὖν κυριώτατα καὶ διωρισμένα
5 πνεύματα ταῦτ' ἐστὶ καὶ τοῦτον τέτακται τὸν τρόπον· τοῦ δ'
εἶναι πλείους ἀνέμους ἀπὸ τῶν πρὸς ἄρκτον τόπων ἢ τῶν
πρὸς μεσημβρίαν αἴτιον τό τε τὴν οἰκουμένην ὑποκεῖσθαι
πρὸς τοῦτον τὸν τόπον, καὶ ὅτι πολλῷ πλέον ὕδωρ καὶ χιὼν
ἀπωθεῖται εἰς τοῦτο τὸ μέρος διὰ τὸ ἐκεῖνα ὑπὸ τὸν ἥλιον εἶναι
10 καὶ τὴν ἐκείνου φοράν, ὧν τηκομένων εἰς τὴν γῆν καὶ
θερμαινομένων ὑπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου καὶ τῆς γῆς ἀναγκαῖον πλείω
καὶ ἐπὶ πλείω τόπον γίγνεσθαι τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν διὰ ταύτην
τὴν αἰτίαν. ἔστι δὲ τῶν εἰρημένων πνευμάτων βορέας
μὲν ὅ τ' ἀπαρκτίας κυριώτατα, καὶ θρασκίας καὶ
15 μέσης· ὁ δὲ καικίας κοινὸς ἀπηλιώτου καὶ βορέου· νότος δὲ ὅ
τε ἰθαγενὴς ὁ ἀπὸ μεσημβρίας καὶ λίψ· ἀπηλιώτης δὲ ὅ
τε ἀπ' ἀνατολῆς ἰσημερινῆς καὶ ὁ εὖρος· ὁ δὲ φοινικίας κοινός·
ζέφυρος δὲ ὅ τε ἰθαγενὴς καὶ ὁ ἀργέστης καλούμενος.
ὅλως δὲ τὰ μὲν βόρεια τούτων καλεῖται, τὰ δὲ νότια· προςτίθεται
20 δὲ τὰ μὲν ζεφυρικὰ τῷ βορέᾳ (ψυχρότερα γὰρ
διὰ τὸ ἀπὸ δυσμῶν πνεῖν), νότῳ δὲ τὰ ἀπηλιωτικά (θερμότερα
γὰρ διὰ τὸ ἀπ' ἀνατολῆς πνεῖν). διωρισμένων οὖν τῷ
ψυχρῷ καὶ τῷ θερμῷ καὶ ἀλεεινῷ τῶν πνευμάτων οὕτως
ἐκάλεσαν. θερμότερα μὲν τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς ἕω τῶν ἀπὸ δυσμῆς,
25 ὅτι πλείω χρόνον ὑπὸ τὸν ἥλιόν ἐστι τὰ ἀπ' ἀνατολῆς· τὰ
δ' ἀπὸ δυσμῆς ἀπολείπει τε θᾶττον καὶ πλησιάζει τῷ τόπῳ
ὀψιαίτερον. οὕτω δὲ τεταγμένων τῶν ἀνέμων, δῆλον ὅτι
ἅμα πνεῖν τοὺς μὲν ἐναντίους οὐχ οἷόν τε (κατὰ διάμετρον
γάρ· ἅτερος οὖν παύσεται ἀποβιασθείς), τοὺς δὲ μὴ οὕτως
30 κειμένους πρὸς ἀλλήλους οὐδὲν κωλύει, οἷον τὸν Ζ καὶ Δ. διὰ
τοῦτο ἅμα πνέουσιν ἐνίοτε ἀμφότεροι οὔριοι, ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ σημεῖον,
οὐκ ἐκ ταὐτοῦ οὐδὲ τῷ αὐτῷ πνεύματι. κατὰ δὲ τὰς
ὥρας τὰς ἐναντίας οἱ ἐναντίοι μάλιστα πνέουσιν, οἷον περὶ
1Meses has not, or else there would be a wind blowing from the point M which is diametrically opposite. Thrascias corresponding to the point I has not, for then there would be a wind blowing from N, the point which is diametrically opposite. (But perhaps a local wind which the inhabitants of those parts call Phoenicias blows from that point.)
These are the most important and definite 5winds and these their places.
There are more winds from the north than from the south. The reason for this is that the region in which we live lies nearer to the north. Also, much more water and snow is pushed aside into this quarter because the other lies under the sun 10and its course. When this thaws and soaks into the earth and is exposed to the heat of the sun and the earth it necessarily causes evaporation to rise in greater quantities and over a greater space.
Of the winds we have described Aparctias is the north wind in the strict sense. Thrascias and 15Meses are north winds too. (Caecias is half north and half east.) South are that which blows from due south and Lips. East, the wind from the rising of the sun at the equinox and Eurus. Phoenicias is half south and half east. West, the wind from the true west and that called Argestes. More generally these winds are classified as northerly or southerly. 20The west winds are counted as northerly, for they blow from the place of sunset and are therefore colder; the east winds as southerly, for they are warmer because they blow from the place of sunrise. So the distinction of cold and hot or warm is the basis for the division of the winds into northerly and southerly. East winds are warmer than west winds 25because the sun shines on the east longer, whereas it leaves the west sooner and reaches it later.
Since this is the distribution of the winds it is clear that contrary winds cannot blow simultaneously. They are diametrically opposite to one another and one of the two must be overpowered and cease. Winds that are not 30diametrically opposite to one another may blow simultaneously: for instance the winds from Z and from D.
These are the most important and definite 5winds and these their places.
There are more winds from the north than from the south. The reason for this is that the region in which we live lies nearer to the north. Also, much more water and snow is pushed aside into this quarter because the other lies under the sun 10and its course. When this thaws and soaks into the earth and is exposed to the heat of the sun and the earth it necessarily causes evaporation to rise in greater quantities and over a greater space.
Of the winds we have described Aparctias is the north wind in the strict sense. Thrascias and 15Meses are north winds too. (Caecias is half north and half east.) South are that which blows from due south and Lips. East, the wind from the rising of the sun at the equinox and Eurus. Phoenicias is half south and half east. West, the wind from the true west and that called Argestes. More generally these winds are classified as northerly or southerly. 20The west winds are counted as northerly, for they blow from the place of sunset and are therefore colder; the east winds as southerly, for they are warmer because they blow from the place of sunrise. So the distinction of cold and hot or warm is the basis for the division of the winds into northerly and southerly. East winds are warmer than west winds 25because the sun shines on the east longer, whereas it leaves the west sooner and reaches it later.
Since this is the distribution of the winds it is clear that contrary winds cannot blow simultaneously. They are diametrically opposite to one another and one of the two must be overpowered and cease. Winds that are not 30diametrically opposite to one another may blow simultaneously: for instance the winds from Z and from D.
364b
1 ἰσημερίαν τὴν μὲν ἐαρινὴν καικίας καὶ ὅλως τὰ ἐπέκεινα
τροπῆς θερινῆς, περὶ δὲ τὴν μετοπωρινὴν λίβες, περὶ δὲ τροπὰς
θερινὰς μὲν ζέφυρος, χειμερινὰς δὲ εὖρος. ἐπιπίπτουσι
δὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις μάλιστα καὶ παύουσιν ἀπαρκτίαι καὶ θρασκίαι
5 καὶ ἀργέσται· διὰ τὸ ἐγγυτάτω γὰρ τὴν ὁρμὴν αὐτῶν
εἶναι πολλοί τε καὶ ἰσχυροὶ πνέουσι μάλιστα οὗτοι. διὸ
καὶ αἰθριώτατοί εἰσι τῶν ἀνέμων· πνέοντες γὰρ ἐγγύθεν μάλιστα
ἀποβιαζόμενοί τε τἆλλα πνεύματα παύουσι, καὶ ἀποφυσῶντες
τὰ συνιστάμενα νέφη ποιοῦσιν αἰθρίαν, ἂν μὴ ψυχροὶ
10 σφόδρα τύχωσιν ἅμα ὄντες. τότε δὲ οὐκ αἴθριοι· ἐὰν γὰρ
ὦσι μᾶλλον ψυχροὶ ἢ μεγάλοι, φθάνουσι πηγνύντες ἢ προωθοῦντες.
ὁ δὲ καικίας οὐκ αἴθριος, ὅτι ἀνακάμπτει εἰς αὑτόν·
ὅθεν καὶ λέγεται ἡ παροιμία "ἕλκων ἐφ' αὑτὸν ὥστε
καικίας νέφος." αἱ δὲ περιστάσεις γίγνονται αὐτῶν καταπαυομένων
15 εἰς τοὺς ἐχομένους κατὰ τὴν τοῦ ἡλίου μετάστασιν, διὰ
τὸ κινεῖσθαι μάλιστα τὸ ἐχόμενον τῆς ἀρχῆς· ἡ δὲ ἀρχὴ
οὕτω κινεῖται τῶν πνευμάτων ὡς ὁ ἥλιος. οἱ ἐναντίοι δὲ ἢ
ταὐτὸ ποιοῦσιν ἢ ἐναντίον, οἷον ὑγροὶ λὶψ καὶ καικίας, ὃν
ἑλλησποντίαν ἔνιοι καλοῦσιν, καὶ εὖρος, ὃν ἀπηλιώτην. ξηροὶ
20 δὲ ἀργέστης καὶ εὖρος· ἀπ' ἀρχῆς δὲ οὗτος ξηρός, τελευτῶν
δὲ ὑδατώδης. νιφετώδης δὲ μέσης καὶ ἀπαρκτίας μάλιστα·
οὗτοι γὰρ ψυχρότατοι. χαλαζώδεις δὲ ἀπαρκτίας καὶ θρασκίας
καὶ ἀργέστης. καυματώδης δὲ νότος καὶ ζέφυρος καὶ
εὖρος. νέφεσι δὲ πυκνοῦσι τὸν οὐρανὸν καικίας μὲν σφόδρα,
25 λὶψ δὲ ἀραιοτέροις, καικίας μὲν διά τε τὸ ἀνακάμπτειν
πρὸς αὑτὸν καὶ διὰ τὸ κοινὸς εἶναι βορέου καὶ εὔρου, ὥστε διὰ
μὲν τὸ ψυχρὸς εἶναι πηγνὺς τὸν ἀτμίζοντα ἀέρα συνίστησι,
διὰ δὲ τὸ τῷ τόπῳ ἀπηλιωτικὸς εἶναι ἔχει πολλὴν ὕλην
καὶ ἀτμίδα ἣν προωθεῖ. αἴθριοι δὲ ἀπαρκτίας, θρασκίας,
30 ἀργέστης· ἡ δ' αἰτία εἴρηται πρότερον. ἀστραπὰς δὲ ποιοῦσιν μάλιστα
οὗτοί τε καὶ ὁ μέσης· διὰ μὲν γὰρ τὸ ἐγγύθεν πνεῖν
ψυχροί εἰσιν, διὰ δὲ τὸ ψυχρὸν ἀστραπὴ γίγνεται· ἐκκρίνεται
γὰρ συνιόντων τῶν νεφῶν. διὸ καὶ ἔνιοι τῶν αὐτῶν τούτων
1Hence it sometimes happens that both of them, though different winds and blowing from different quarters, are favourable to sailors making for the same point.
Contrary winds commonly blow at opposite seasons. Thus Caecias and in general the winds north of the summer solstice blow about the time of the spring equinox, but about the autumn equinox Lips; and Zephyrus about the summer solstice, but about the winter solstice Eurus.
Aparctias, Thrascias, 5and Argestes are the winds that fall on others most and stop them. Their source is so close to us that they are greater and stronger than other winds. They bring fair weather most of all winds for the same reason, for, blowing as they do, from close at hand, they overpower the other winds and stop them; they also blow away the clouds that are forming and leave a clear sky-unless they happen to be 10very cold. Then they do not bring fair weather, but being colder than they are strong they condense the clouds before driving them away.
Caecias does not bring fair weather because it returns upon itself. Hence the saying: 'Bringing it on himself as Caecias does clouds.'
When they cease, winds are succeeded 15by their neighbours in the direction of the movement of the sun. For an effect is most apt to be produced in the neighbourhood of its cause, and the cause of winds moves with the sun.
Contrary winds have either the same or contrary effects. Thus Lips and Caecias, sometimes called Hellespontias, are both rainy 20gestes and Eurus are dry: the latter being dry at first and rainy afterwards. Meses and Aparctias are coldest and bring most snow. Aparctias, Thrascias, and Argestes bring hail. Notus, Zephyrus, and Eurus are hot. Caecias covers the sky with heavy clouds, 25Lips with lighter ones. Caecias does this because it returns upon itself and combines the qualities of Boreas and Eurus. By being cold it condenses and gathers the vaporous air, and because it is easterly it carries with it and drives before it a great quantity of such matter. Aparctias, Thrascias, 30and Argestes bring fair weather for the reason we have explained before. These winds and Meses are most commonly accompanied by lightning.
Contrary winds commonly blow at opposite seasons. Thus Caecias and in general the winds north of the summer solstice blow about the time of the spring equinox, but about the autumn equinox Lips; and Zephyrus about the summer solstice, but about the winter solstice Eurus.
Aparctias, Thrascias, 5and Argestes are the winds that fall on others most and stop them. Their source is so close to us that they are greater and stronger than other winds. They bring fair weather most of all winds for the same reason, for, blowing as they do, from close at hand, they overpower the other winds and stop them; they also blow away the clouds that are forming and leave a clear sky-unless they happen to be 10very cold. Then they do not bring fair weather, but being colder than they are strong they condense the clouds before driving them away.
Caecias does not bring fair weather because it returns upon itself. Hence the saying: 'Bringing it on himself as Caecias does clouds.'
When they cease, winds are succeeded 15by their neighbours in the direction of the movement of the sun. For an effect is most apt to be produced in the neighbourhood of its cause, and the cause of winds moves with the sun.
Contrary winds have either the same or contrary effects. Thus Lips and Caecias, sometimes called Hellespontias, are both rainy 20gestes and Eurus are dry: the latter being dry at first and rainy afterwards. Meses and Aparctias are coldest and bring most snow. Aparctias, Thrascias, and Argestes bring hail. Notus, Zephyrus, and Eurus are hot. Caecias covers the sky with heavy clouds, 25Lips with lighter ones. Caecias does this because it returns upon itself and combines the qualities of Boreas and Eurus. By being cold it condenses and gathers the vaporous air, and because it is easterly it carries with it and drives before it a great quantity of such matter. Aparctias, Thrascias, 30and Argestes bring fair weather for the reason we have explained before. These winds and Meses are most commonly accompanied by lightning.
365a
1 χαλαζώδεις εἰσίν· ταχὺ γὰρ πηγνύουσιν. ἐκνεφίαι δὲ γίγνονται
μετοπώρου μὲν μάλιστα, εἶτα ἔαρος, καὶ μάλιστα ἀπαρκτίας
καὶ θρασκίας καὶ ἀργέστης. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι οἱ ἐκνεφίαι
γίγνονται μάλιστα ὅταν τῶν ἄλλων πνεόντων ἐμπίπτωσιν ἕτεροι,
5 οὗτοι δὲ μάλιστα ἐμπίπτουσιν τοῖς ἄλλοις πνέουσιν· ἡ δ' αἰτία
εἴρηται καὶ τούτου πρότερον. οἱ δ' ἐτησίαι περιίστανται τοῖς
μὲν περὶ δυσμὰς οἰκοῦσιν ἐκ τῶν ἀπαρκτίων εἰς θρασκίας καὶ
ἀργέστας καὶ ζεφύρους (ὁ γὰρ ἀπαρκτίας . . . ζέφυρός ἐστιν),
ἀρχόμενοι μὲν ἀπὸ τῆς ἄρκτου, τελευτῶντες δ' εἰς τοὺς πόρρω·
10 τοῖς δὲ πρὸς ἕω περιίστανται μέχρι τοῦ ἀπηλιώτου. περὶ μὲν
οὖν ἀνέμων, τῆς τε ἐξ ἀρχῆς αὐτῶν γενέσεως καὶ οὐσίας
καὶ τῶν συμβαινόντων κοινῇ τε παθημάτων καὶ περὶ ἕκαστον,
τοσαῦθ' ἡμῖν εἰρήσθω.
1They are cold because they blow from the north, and lightning is due to cold, being ejected when the clouds contract. Some of these same bring hail with them for the same reason; namely, that they cause a sudden condensation.
Hurricanes are commonest in autumn, and next in spring: Aparctias, Thrascias, and Argestes give rise to them most. This is because hurricanes are generally formed when some winds are blowing and others fall on them; 5and these are the winds which are most apt to fall on others that are blowing; the reason for which, too, we have explained before.
The Etesiae veer round: they begin from the north, and become for dwellers in the west Thrasciae, Argestae, and Zephyrus (for Zephyrus belongs to the north). 10For dwellers in the east they veer round as far as Apeliotes.
So much for the winds, their origin and nature and the properties common to them all or peculiar to each.
Hurricanes are commonest in autumn, and next in spring: Aparctias, Thrascias, and Argestes give rise to them most. This is because hurricanes are generally formed when some winds are blowing and others fall on them; 5and these are the winds which are most apt to fall on others that are blowing; the reason for which, too, we have explained before.
The Etesiae veer round: they begin from the north, and become for dwellers in the west Thrasciae, Argestae, and Zephyrus (for Zephyrus belongs to the north). 10For dwellers in the east they veer round as far as Apeliotes.
So much for the winds, their origin and nature and the properties common to them all or peculiar to each.
Book 2,Chapter 7 (365a14–365b20)
περὶ δὲ σεισμοῦ καὶ κινήσεως γῆς μετὰ ταῦτα λεκτέον·
15 ἡ γὰρ αἰτία τοῦ πάθους ἐχομένη τούτου τοῦ γένους ἐστίν. ἔστι δὲ
τὰ παρειλημμένα μέχρι γε τοῦ νῦν χρόνου τρία καὶ παρὰ
τριῶν. Ἀναξαγόρας τε γὰρ ὁ Κλαζομένιος καὶ πρότερον
Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος ἀπεφήναντο, καὶ τούτων ὕστερον Δημόκριτος
ὁ Ἀβδηρίτης. Ἀναξαγόρας μὲν οὖν φησι τὸν αἰθέρα
20 πεφυκότα φέρεσθαι ἄνω, ἐμπίπτοντα δ' εἰς τὰ κάτω τῆς
γῆς καὶ κοῖλα κινεῖν αὐτήν· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἄνω συναληλεῖφθαι
διὰ τοὺς ὄμβρους (ἐπεὶ φύσει γε ἅπασαν ὁμοίως εἶναι
σομφήν), ὡς ὄντος τοῦ μὲν ἄνω τοῦ δὲ κάτω τῆς ὅλης σφαίρας,
καὶ ἄνω μὲν τούτου ὄντος τοῦ μορίου ἐφ' οὗ τυγχάνομεν
25 οἰκοῦντες, κάτω δὲ θατέρου. πρὸς μὲν οὖν ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν
οὐδὲν ἴσως δεῖ λέγειν ὡς λίαν ἁπλῶς εἰρημένην· τό τε γὰρ
ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω νομίζειν οὕτως ἔχειν ὥστε μὴ πρὸς μὲν τὴν γῆν
πάντῃ φέρεσθαι τὰ βάρος ἔχοντα τῶν σωμάτων, ἄνω δὲ
τὰ κοῦφα καὶ τὸ πῦρ, εὔηθες, καὶ ταῦθ' ὁρῶντας τὸν ὁρίζοντα
30 τὴν οἰκουμένην, ὅσην ἡμεῖς ἴσμεν, ἕτερον ἀεὶ γιγνόμενον
μεθισταμένων, ὡς οὔσης κυρτῆς καὶ σφαιροειδοῦς· καὶ τὸ λέγειν
μὲν ὡς διὰ τὸ μέγεθος ἐπὶ τοῦ ἀέρος μένειν, σείεσθαι δὲ
φάσκειν τυπτομένην κάτωθεν ἄνω δι' ὅλης. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις
οὐδὲν ἀποδίδωσι τῶν συμβαινόντων περὶ τοὺς σεισμούς· οὔτε
35 γὰρ χῶραι οὔτε ὧραι αἱ τυχοῦσαι μετέχουσι τούτου τοῦ πάθους.
14We must go on to discuss earthquakes next, 15for their cause is akin to our last subject.
The theories that have been put forward up to the present date are three, and their authors three men, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, and before him Anaximenes of Miletus, and later Democritus of Abdera.
Anaxagoras says that the ether, 20which naturally moves upwards, is caught in hollows below the earth and so shakes it, for though the earth is really all of it equally porous, its surface is clogged up by rain. This implies that part of the whole sphere is 'above' and part 'below': 'above' being the part on which we 25live, 'below' the other.
This theory is perhaps too primitive to require refutation. It is absurd to think of up and down otherwise than as meaning that heavy bodies move to the earth from every quarter, and light ones, such as fire, away from it; especially as we see that, 30as far as our knowledge of the earth goes, the horizon always changes with a change in our position, which proves that the earth is convex and spherical. It is absurd, too, to maintain that the earth rests on the air because of its size, and then to say that impact upwards from below shakes it right through. Besides he gives no account of the circumstances attendant on earthquakes: 35for not every country or every season is subject to them.
The theories that have been put forward up to the present date are three, and their authors three men, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, and before him Anaximenes of Miletus, and later Democritus of Abdera.
Anaxagoras says that the ether, 20which naturally moves upwards, is caught in hollows below the earth and so shakes it, for though the earth is really all of it equally porous, its surface is clogged up by rain. This implies that part of the whole sphere is 'above' and part 'below': 'above' being the part on which we 25live, 'below' the other.
This theory is perhaps too primitive to require refutation. It is absurd to think of up and down otherwise than as meaning that heavy bodies move to the earth from every quarter, and light ones, such as fire, away from it; especially as we see that, 30as far as our knowledge of the earth goes, the horizon always changes with a change in our position, which proves that the earth is convex and spherical. It is absurd, too, to maintain that the earth rests on the air because of its size, and then to say that impact upwards from below shakes it right through. Besides he gives no account of the circumstances attendant on earthquakes: 35for not every country or every season is subject to them.
365b
1 Δημόκριτος δέ φησι πλήρη τὴν γῆν ὕδατος οὖσαν, καὶ πολὺ
δεχομένην ἕτερον ὄμβριον ὕδωρ, ὑπὸ τούτου κινεῖσθαι· πλείονός
τε γὰρ γιγνομένου διὰ τὸ μὴ δύνασθαι δέχεσθαι τὰς κοιλίας
ἀποβιαζόμενον ποιεῖν τὸν σεισμόν, καὶ ξηραινομένην
5 ἕλκουσαν εἰς τοὺς κενοὺς τόπους ἐκ τῶν πληρεστέρων τὸ μεταβάλλον
ἐμπῖπτον κινεῖν. Ἀναξιμένης δέ φησιν βρεχομένην
τὴν γῆν καὶ ξηραινομένην ῥήγνυσθαι, καὶ ὑπὸ τούτων τῶν
ἀπορρηγνυμένων κολωνῶν ἐμπιπτόντων σείεσθαι· διὸ καὶ
γίγνεσθαι τοὺς σεισμοὺς ἔν τε τοῖς αὐχμοῖς καὶ πάλιν ἐν
10 ταῖς ἐπομβρίαις· ἔν τε γὰρ τοῖς αὐχμοῖς, ὥσπερ εἴρηται,
ξηραινομένην ῥήγνυσθαι, καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν ὑδάτων ὑπερυγραινομένην
διαπίπτειν. ἔδει δὲ τούτου συμβαίνοντος ὑπονοστοῦσαν
πολλαχῇ φαίνεσθαι τὴν γῆν. ἔτι δὲ διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν
περὶ τόπους τινὰς πολλάκις γίγνεται τοῦτο τὸ πάθος οὐδεμιᾷ
15 διαφέροντας ὑπερβολῇ τοιαύτῃ παρὰ τοὺς ἄλλους; καίτοι
ἐχρῆν. ὅλως δὲ τοῖς οὕτως ὑπολαμβάνουσιν ἀναγκαῖον ἧττον
ἀεὶ τοὺς σεισμοὺς φάναι γίγνεσθαι, καὶ τέλος παύσασθαί
ποτε σειομένην· τὸ γὰρ σαττόμενον τοιαύτην ἔχει φύσιν.
ὥστ' εἰ τοῦτ' ἀδύνατον, δῆλον ὅτι ἀδύνατον καὶ ταύτην εἶναι
20 τὴν αἰτίαν.
1Democritus says that the earth is full of water and that when a quantity of rain-water is added to this an earthquake is the result. The hollows in the earth being unable to admit the excess of water it forces its way in and so causes an earthquake. Or again, the earth as it dries 5draws the water from the fuller to the emptier parts, and the inrush of the water as it changes its place causes the earthquake.
Anaximenes says that the earth breaks up when it grows wet or dry, and earthquakes are due to the fall of these masses as they break away. Hence earthquakes take place in times of drought and again 10of heavy rain, since, as we have explained, the earth grows dry in time of drought and breaks up, whereas the rain makes it sodden and destroys its cohesion.
But if this were the case the earth ought to be found to be sinking in many places. Again, why do earthquakes frequently occur in places which are not 15excessively subject to drought or rain, as they ought to be on the theory? Besides, on this view, earthquakes ought always to be getting fewer, and should come to an end entirely some day: the notion of contraction by packing together implies this. So this is impossible 20the theory must be impossible too.
Anaximenes says that the earth breaks up when it grows wet or dry, and earthquakes are due to the fall of these masses as they break away. Hence earthquakes take place in times of drought and again 10of heavy rain, since, as we have explained, the earth grows dry in time of drought and breaks up, whereas the rain makes it sodden and destroys its cohesion.
But if this were the case the earth ought to be found to be sinking in many places. Again, why do earthquakes frequently occur in places which are not 15excessively subject to drought or rain, as they ought to be on the theory? Besides, on this view, earthquakes ought always to be getting fewer, and should come to an end entirely some day: the notion of contraction by packing together implies this. So this is impossible 20the theory must be impossible too.
Book 2,Chapter 8 (365b21–369a9)
ἀλλ' ἐπειδὴ φανερὸν ὅτι ἀναγκαῖον καὶ ἀπὸ ὑγροῦ καὶ
ἀπὸ ξηροῦ γίγνεσθαι ἀναθυμίασιν, ὥσπερ εἴπομεν ἐν τοῖς
πρότερον, ἀνάγκη τούτων ὑπαρχόντων γίγνεσθαι τοὺς σεισμούς.
ὑπάρχει γὰρ ἡ γῆ καθ' αὑτὴν μὲν ξηρά, διὰ δὲ τοὺς ὄμβρους
25 ἔχουσα ἐν αὑτῇ νοτίδα πολλήν, ὥσθ' ὑπό τε τοῦ ἡλίου
καὶ τοῦ ἐν αὐτῇ πυρὸς θερμαινομένης πολὺ μὲν ἔξω πολὺ δ'
ἐντὸς γίγνεσθαι τὸ πνεῦμα· καὶ τοῦτο ὁτὲ μὲν συνεχὲς ἔξω
ῥεῖ πᾶν, ὁτὲ δ' εἴσω πᾶν, ἐνίοτε δὲ καὶ μερίζεται. εἰ δὴ
τοῦτ' ἀδύνατον ἄλλως ἔχειν, τὸ μετὰ τοῦτο σκεπτέον ἂν εἴη
30 ποῖον κινητικώτατον εἴη τῶν σωμάτων· ἀνάγκη γὰρ τὸ
ἐπὶ πλεῖστόν τε πεφυκὸς ἰέναι καὶ σφοδρότατον μάλιστα
τοιοῦτον εἶναι. σφοδρότατον μὲν οὖν ἐξ ἀνάγκης τὸ τάχιστα
φερόμενον· πλήσσει γὰρ μάλιστα διὰ τὸ τάχος· ἐπὶ πλεῖστον
δὲ πέφυκε διιέναι τὸ διὰ παντὸς ἰέναι μάλιστα δυνάμενον,
35 τοιοῦτον δὲ τὸ λεπτότατον. ὥστ' εἴπερ ἡ τοῦ πνεύματος
21We have already shown that wet and dry must both give rise to an evaporation: earthquakes are a necessary consequence of this fact. The earth is essentially dry, but rain 25fills it with moisture. Then the sun and its own fire warm it and give rise to a quantity of wind both outside and inside it. This wind sometimes flows outwards in a single body, sometimes inwards, and sometimes it is divided. All these are necessary laws. Next we must find out 30what body has the greatest motive force. This will certainly be the body that naturally moves farthest and is most violent. Now that which has the most rapid motion is necessarily the most violent; for its swiftness gives its impact the greatest force. Again, 35the rarest body, that which can most readily pass through every other body, is that which naturally moves farthest.
366a
1 φύσις τοιαύτη, μάλιστα τῶν σωμάτων τὸ πνεῦμα κινητικόν·
καὶ γὰρ τὸ πῦρ ὅταν μετὰ πνεύματος ᾖ, γίγνεται
φλὸξ καὶ φέρεται ταχέως. οὐκ ἂν οὖν ὕδωρ οὐδὲ γῆ αἴτιον
εἴη, ἀλλὰ πνεῦμα τῆς κινήσεως, ὅταν εἴσω τύχῃ ῥυὲν τὸ
5 ἔξω ἀναθυμιώμενον. διὸ γίγνονται νηνεμίας οἱ πλεῖστοι καὶ
μέγιστοι τῶν σεισμῶν· συνεχὴς γὰρ οὖσα ἡ ἀναθυμίασις
ἀκολουθεῖ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ τῇ ὁρμῇ τῆς ἀρχῆς, ὥστε ἢ ἔσω
ἅμα ἢ ἔξω ὁρμᾷ πᾶσα. τὸ δ' ἐνίους γίγνεσθαι καὶ πνεύματος
ὄντος οὐδὲν ἄλογον· ὁρῶμεν γὰρ ἐνίοτε ἅμα πλείους
10 πνέοντας ἀνέμους, ὧν ὅταν εἰς τὴν γῆν ὁρμήσῃ θάτερον, ἔσται
πνεύματος ὄντος ὁ σεισμός. ἐλάττους δ' οὗτοι τὸ μέγεθος γίγνονται
διὰ τὸ διῃρῆσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν καὶ τὴν αἰτίαν αὐτῶν.
νυκτὸς δ' οἱ πλείους καὶ μείζους γίγνονται τῶν σεισμῶν, οἱ
δὲ τῆς ἡμέρας περὶ μεσημβρίαν· νηνεμώτατον γάρ ἐστιν ὡς
15 ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ τῆς ἡμέρας ἡ μεσημβρία (ὁ γὰρ ἥλιος ὅταν
μάλιστα κρατῇ, κατακλείει τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν εἰς τὴν γῆν·
κρατεῖ δὲ μάλιστα περὶ τὴν μεσημβρίαν), καὶ αἱ νύκτες δὲ
τῶν ἡμερῶν νηνεμώτεραι διὰ τὴν ἀπουσίαν τὴν τοῦ ἡλίου· ὥστ'
ἔσω γίγνεται πάλιν ἡ ῥύσις, ὥσπερ ἄμπωτις, εἰς τοὐναντίον
20 τῆς ἔξω πλημμυρίδος, καὶ πρὸς ὄρθρον μάλιστα· τηνικαῦτα
γὰρ καὶ τὰ πνεύματα πέφυκεν ἄρχεσθαι πνεῖν.
ἐὰν οὖν εἴσω τύχῃ μεταβάλλουσα ἡ ἀρχὴ αὐτῶν ὥσπερ
Εὔριπος, διὰ τὸ πλῆθος ἰσχυρότερον ποιεῖ τὸν σεισμόν. ἔτι
δὲ περὶ τόπους τοιούτους οἱ ἰσχυρότατοι γίγνονται τῶν σεισμῶν,
25 ὅπου θάλαττα ῥοώδης ἢ ἡ χώρα σομφὴ καὶ ὕπαντρος·
διὸ καὶ περὶ Ἑλλήσποντον καὶ περὶ Ἀχαΐαν καὶ Σικελίαν,
καὶ τῆς Εὐβοίας περὶ τούτους τοὺς τόπους· δοκεῖ γὰρ διαυλωνίζειν
ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν ἡ θάλαττα· διὸ καὶ τὰ θερμὰ τὰ περὶ
Αἰδηψὸν ἀπὸ τοιαύτης αἰτίας γέγονε. περὶ δὲ τοὺς εἰρημένους
30 τόπους οἱ σεισμοὶ γίγνονται μάλιστα διὰ τὴν στενότητα· τὸ
γὰρ πνεῦμα γιγνόμενον σφοδρὸν καὶ διὰ τὸ πλῆθος τῆς θαλάττης
πολλῆς προσφερομένης ἀπωθεῖται πάλιν εἰς τὴν γῆν, τὸ
πεφυκὸς ἀποπνεῖν ἐκ τῆς γῆς. αἵ τε χῶραι ὅσαι σομφοὺς
1Wind satisfies these conditions in the highest degree (fire only becomes flame and moves rapidly when wind accompanies it): so that not water nor earth is the cause of earthquakes but wind-that is, the inrush of the 5external evaporation into the earth.
Hence, since the evaporation generally follows in a continuous body in the direction in which it first started, and either all of it flows inwards or all outwards, most earthquakes and the greatest are accompanied by calm. It is true that some take place when a wind is blowing, but this presents no difficulty. We sometimes find several 10winds blowing simultaneously. If one of these enters the earth we get an earthquake attended by wind. Only these earthquakes are less severe because their source and cause is divided.
Again, most earthquakes and the severest occur at night or, if by day, about noon, that being generally 15the calmest part of the day. For when the sun exerts its full power (as it does about noon) it shuts the evaporation into the earth. Night, too, is calmer than day. The absence of the sun makes the evaporation return into the earth like a sort of ebb tide, 20corresponding to the outward flow; especially towards dawn, for the winds, as a rule, begin to blow then, and if their source changes about like the Euripus and flows inwards the quantity of wind in the earth is greater and a more violent earthquake results.
The severest earthquakes take place 25where the sea is full of currents or the earth spongy and cavernous: so they occur near the Hellespont and in Achaea and Sicily, and those parts of Euboea which correspond to our description-where the sea is supposed to flow in channels below the earth. The hot springs, too, near Aedepsus are due to a cause of this kind. 30It is the confined character of these places that makes them so liable to earthquakes. A great and therefore violent wind is developed, which would naturally blow away from the earth: but the onrush of the sea in a great mass thrusts it back into the earth. The countries that are spongy below the surface are exposed to earthquakes because they have room for so much wind.
Hence, since the evaporation generally follows in a continuous body in the direction in which it first started, and either all of it flows inwards or all outwards, most earthquakes and the greatest are accompanied by calm. It is true that some take place when a wind is blowing, but this presents no difficulty. We sometimes find several 10winds blowing simultaneously. If one of these enters the earth we get an earthquake attended by wind. Only these earthquakes are less severe because their source and cause is divided.
Again, most earthquakes and the severest occur at night or, if by day, about noon, that being generally 15the calmest part of the day. For when the sun exerts its full power (as it does about noon) it shuts the evaporation into the earth. Night, too, is calmer than day. The absence of the sun makes the evaporation return into the earth like a sort of ebb tide, 20corresponding to the outward flow; especially towards dawn, for the winds, as a rule, begin to blow then, and if their source changes about like the Euripus and flows inwards the quantity of wind in the earth is greater and a more violent earthquake results.
The severest earthquakes take place 25where the sea is full of currents or the earth spongy and cavernous: so they occur near the Hellespont and in Achaea and Sicily, and those parts of Euboea which correspond to our description-where the sea is supposed to flow in channels below the earth. The hot springs, too, near Aedepsus are due to a cause of this kind. 30It is the confined character of these places that makes them so liable to earthquakes. A great and therefore violent wind is developed, which would naturally blow away from the earth: but the onrush of the sea in a great mass thrusts it back into the earth. The countries that are spongy below the surface are exposed to earthquakes because they have room for so much wind.
366b
1 ἔχουσι τοὺς κάτω τόπους, πολὺ δεχόμεναι πνεῦμα σείονται
μᾶλλον. καὶ ἔαρος δὲ καὶ μετοπώρου μάλιστα καὶ ἐν
ἐπομβρίαις καὶ ἐν αὐχμοῖς γίγνονται διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν· αἵ
τε γὰρ ὧραι αὗται πνευματωδέσταται· τὸ γὰρ θέρος καὶ ὁ
5 χειμών, τὸ μὲν διὰ τὸν πάγον, τὸ δὲ διὰ τὴν ἀλέαν ποιεῖ
τὴν ἀκινησίαν· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἄγαν ψυχρόν, τὸ δ' ἄγαν ξηρόν
ἐστι· καὶ ἐν μὲν τοῖς αὐχμοῖς πνευματώδης ὁ ἀήρ· τοῦτο
γὰρ αὐτό ἐστιν ὁ αὐχμός, ὅταν πλείων ἡ ἀναθυμίασις ἡ
ξηρὰ γίγνηται τῆς ὑγρᾶς· ἐν δὲ ταῖς ὑπερομβρίαις πλείω
10 τε ποιεῖ τὴν ἐντὸς ἀναθυμίασιν, καὶ τῷ ἐναπολαμβάνεσθαι
ἐν στενοτέροις τόποις καὶ ἀποβιάζεσθαι εἰς ἐλάττω τόπον
τὴν τοιαύτην ἀπόκρισιν, πληρουμένων τῶν κοιλιῶν ὕδατος,
ὅταν ἄρξηται κρατεῖν διὰ τὸ πολὺ εἰς ὀλίγον πιληθῆναι τόπον,
ἰσχυρῶς κινεῖ ῥέων ὁ ἄνεμος καὶ προσπίπτων· δεῖ γὰρ
15 νοεῖν ὅτι ὥσπερ ἐν τῷ σώματι ἡμῶν καὶ τρόμων καὶ σφυγμῶν
αἴτιόν ἐστιν ἡ τοῦ πνεύματος ἐναπολαμβανομένη δύναμις,
οὕτω καὶ ἐν τῇ γῇ τὸ πνεῦμα παραπλήσιον ποιεῖν, καὶ
τὸν μὲν τῶν σεισμῶν οἷον τρόμον εἶναι τὸν δ' οἷον σφυγμόν,
καὶ καθάπερ συμβαίνει πολλάκις μετὰ τὴν οὔρησιν
20 (διὰ τοῦ σώματος γὰρ γίγνεται ὥσπερ τρόμος τις ἀντιμεθισταμένου
τοῦ πνεύματος ἔξωθεν εἴσω ἀθρόου), τοιαῦτα [γὰρ] γίγνεσθαι
καὶ περὶ τὴν γῆν. ὅσην δ' ἔχει τὸ πνεῦμα δύναμιν, οὐ μόνον
ἐκ τῶν ἐν τῷ ἀέρι δεῖ θεωρεῖν γιγνομένων (ἐνταῦθα μὲν
γὰρ διὰ τὸ μέγεθος ὑπολάβοι τις ἂν τοιαῦτα δύνασθαι
25 ποιεῖν) ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν τοῖς σώμασι τοῖς τῶν ζῴων· οἵ τε γὰρ
τέτανοι καὶ οἱ σπασμοὶ πνεύματος μέν εἰσιν κινήσεις, τοσαύτην
δὲ ἔχουσιν ἰσχὺν ὥστε πολλοὺς ἅμα πειρωμένους ἀποβιάζεσθαι
μὴ δύνασθαι κρατεῖν τῆς κινήσεως τῶν ἀρρωστούντων.
τοιοῦτον δὴ δεῖ νοεῖν τὸ γιγνόμενον καὶ ἐν τῇ γῇ, ὡς εἰκάσαι πρὸς
30 μικρὸν μεῖζον. σημεῖα δὲ τούτων καὶ πρὸς τὴν ἡμετέραν αἴσθησιν
πολλαχῇ γέγονεν· ἤδη γὰρ σεισμὸς ἐν τόποις τισὶν
γιγνόμενος οὐ πρότερον ἔληξε πρὶν ἐκρήξας εἰς τὸν ὑπὲρ τῆς γῆς
τόπον φανερῶς ὥσπερ ἐκνεφίας ἐξῆλθεν ὁ κινήσας ἄνεμος,
1For the same reason earthquakes usually take place in spring and autumn and in times of wet and of drought-because these are the windiest seasons. Summer with its heat and 5winter with its frost cause calm: winter is too cold, summer too dry for winds to form. In time of drought the air is full of wind; drought is just the predominance of the dry over the moist evaporation. Again, excessive rain 10causes more of the evaporation to form in the earth. Then this secretion is shut up in a narrow compass and forced into a smaller space by the water that fills the cavities. Thus a great wind is compressed into a smaller space and so gets the upper hand, and then breaks out and beats against the earth and shakes it violently.
We must 15suppose the action of the wind in the earth to be analogous to the tremors and throbbings caused in us by the force of the wind contained in our bodies. Thus some earthquakes are a sort of tremor, others a sort of throbbing. Again, we must think of an earthquake as something like the tremor that often runs through the body after passing water 20as the wind returns inwards from without in one volume.
The force wind can have may be gathered not only from what happens in the air (where one might suppose that it owed its power to produce such effects to its volume), 25but also from what is observed in animal bodies. Tetanus and spasms are motions of wind, and their force is such that the united efforts of many men do not succeed in overcoming the movements of the patients. We must suppose, then (to compare great things 30with small), that what happens in the earth is just like that. Our theory has been verified by actual observation in many places. It has been known to happen that an earthquake has continued until the wind that caused it burst through the earth into the air and appeared visibly like a hurricane. This happened lately near Heracleia in Pontus and some time past at the island Hiera, one of the group called the Aeolian islands.
We must 15suppose the action of the wind in the earth to be analogous to the tremors and throbbings caused in us by the force of the wind contained in our bodies. Thus some earthquakes are a sort of tremor, others a sort of throbbing. Again, we must think of an earthquake as something like the tremor that often runs through the body after passing water 20as the wind returns inwards from without in one volume.
The force wind can have may be gathered not only from what happens in the air (where one might suppose that it owed its power to produce such effects to its volume), 25but also from what is observed in animal bodies. Tetanus and spasms are motions of wind, and their force is such that the united efforts of many men do not succeed in overcoming the movements of the patients. We must suppose, then (to compare great things 30with small), that what happens in the earth is just like that. Our theory has been verified by actual observation in many places. It has been known to happen that an earthquake has continued until the wind that caused it burst through the earth into the air and appeared visibly like a hurricane. This happened lately near Heracleia in Pontus and some time past at the island Hiera, one of the group called the Aeolian islands.
367a
1 οἷον καὶ περὶ Ἡράκλειαν ἐγένετο τὴν ἐν τῷ Πόντῳ νεωστί,
καὶ πρότερον περὶ τὴν Ἱερὰν νῆσον (αὕτη δ' ἐστὶν μία τῶν
Αἰόλου καλουμένων νήσων)· ἐν ταύτῃ γὰρ ἀνῴδει τι τῆς γῆς,
καὶ ἀνῄει οἷον λοφώδης ὄγκος μετὰ ψόφου· τέλος δὲ ῥαγέντος
5 ἐξῆλθεν πνεῦμα πολὺ καὶ τὸν φέψαλον καὶ τὴν τέφραν
ἀνῆκεν καὶ τήν τε Λιπαραίων πόλιν οὖσαν οὐ πόρρω
πᾶσαν κατετέφρωσε καὶ εἰς ἐνίας τῶν ἐν Ἰταλίᾳ πόλεων
ἦλθεν· καὶ νῦν ὅπου τὸ ἀναφύσημα τοῦτο ἐγένετο, δῆλόν
ἐστιν. καὶ γὰρ δὴ τοῦ γιγνομένου πυρὸς ἐν τῇ γῇ ταύτην οἰητέον
10 εἶναι τὴν αἰτίαν, ὅταν κοπτόμενον ἐκπρησθῇ πρῶτον εἰς
μικρὰ κερματισθέντος τοῦ ἀέρος. τεκμήριον δ' ἐστὶ τοῦ ῥεῖν
ὑπὸ γῆν τὰ πνεύματα καὶ τὸ γιγνόμενον περὶ ταύτας
τὰς νήσους· ὅταν γὰρ ἄνεμος μέλλῃ πνευσεῖσθαι νότος, προσημαίνει
πρότερον· ἠχοῦσι γὰρ οἱ τόποι ἐξ ὧν γίγνεται τὰ
15 ἀναφυσήματα, διὰ τὸ τὴν θάλατταν μὲν προωθεῖσθαι ἤδη
πόρρωθεν, ὑπὸ δὲ ταύτης τὸ ἐκ τῆς γῆς ἀναφυσώμενον ἀπωθεῖσθαι
πάλιν εἴσω, ᾗπερ ἐπέρχεται ἡ θάλαττα ταύτῃ. ποιεῖ
δὲ ψόφον ἄνευ σεισμοῦ διά τε τὴν εὐρυχωρίαν τῶν τόπων
(ὑπερχεῖται γὰρ εἰς τὸ ἀχανὲς ἔξω) καὶ δι' ὀλιγότητα τοῦ
20 ἀπωθουμένου ἀέρος. ἔτι τὸ γίγνεσθαι τὸν ἥλιον ἀχλυώδη καὶ
ἀμαυρότερον ἄνευ νέφους, καὶ πρὸ τῶν ὀρθρίων σεισμῶν ἐνίοτε
νηνεμίαν τε καὶ κρύος ἰσχυρόν, σημεῖον τῆς εἰρημένης αἰτίας
ἐστίν. τόν τε γὰρ ἥλιον ἀχλυώδη καὶ ἀμαυρὸν ἀναγκαῖον
εἶναι ὑπονοστεῖν ἀρχομένου τοῦ πνεύματος εἰς τὴν γῆν τοῦ διαλύοντος
25 τὸν ἀέρα καὶ διακρίνοντος, καὶ πρὸς τὴν ἕω καὶ
περὶ τοὺς ὄρθρους νηνεμίαν τε καὶ ψῦχος. τὴν μὲν γὰρ νηνεμίαν
ἀναγκαῖον ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ συμβαίνειν, καθάπερ εἴρηται
καὶ πρότερον, οἷον μεταρροίας εἴσω γιγνομένης τοῦ πνεύματος,
καὶ μᾶλλον πρὸ τῶν μειζόνων σεισμῶν· μὴ διασπώμενον
30 γὰρ τὸ μὲν ἔξω τὸ δ' ἐντός, ἀλλ' ἀθρόως φερόμενον
ἀναγκαῖον ἰσχύειν μᾶλλον. τὸ δὲ ψῦχος συμβαίνει
διὰ τὸ τὴν ἀναθυμίασιν εἴσω τρέπεσθαι, φύσει θερμὴν
οὖσαν καθ' αὑτήν. οὐ δοκοῦσι δ' οἱ ἄνεμοι εἶναι θερμοὶ διὰ τὸ
κινεῖν τὸν ἀέρα πλήρη πολλῆς ὄντα καὶ ψυχρᾶς ἀτμίδος,
1Here a portion of the earth swelled up and a lump like a mound rose with a noise: finally it burst, and 5a great wind came out of it and threw up live cinders and ashes which buried the neighbouring town of Lipara and reached some of the towns in Italy. The spot where this eruption occurred is still to be seen.
Indeed, this must be recognized 10as the cause of the fire that is generated in the earth: the air is first broken up in small particles and then the wind is beaten about and so catches fire.
A phenomenon in these islands affords further evidence of the fact that winds move below the surface of the earth. When a south wind is going to blow there is a premonitory indication: a sound is heard in the places from which 15the eruptions issue. This is because the sea is being pushed on from a distance and its advance thrusts back into the earth the wind that was issuing from it. The reason why there is a noise and no earthquake is that the underground spaces are so extensive in proportion to the quantity of the 20air that is being driven on that the wind slips away into the void beyond.
Again, our theory is supported by the facts that the sun appears hazy and is darkened in the absence of clouds, and that there is sometimes calm and sharp frost before earthquakes at sunrise. The sun is necessarily obscured and darkened when the evaporation which dissolves and rarefies 25the air begins to withdraw into the earth. The calm, too, and the cold towards sunrise and dawn follow from the theory. The calm we have already explained. There must as a rule be calm because the wind flows back into the earth: again, it must be most marked before the more violent earthquakes, 30for when the wind is not part outside earth, part inside, but moves in a single body, its strength must be greater. The cold comes because the evaporation which is naturally and essentially hot enters the earth. (Wind is not recognized to be hot, because it sets the air in motion, and that is full of a quantity of cold vapour. It is the same with the breath we blow from our mouth: close by it is warm, as it is when we breathe out through the mouth, but there is so little of it that it is scarcely noticed, whereas at a distance it is cold for the same reason as wind.)
Indeed, this must be recognized 10as the cause of the fire that is generated in the earth: the air is first broken up in small particles and then the wind is beaten about and so catches fire.
A phenomenon in these islands affords further evidence of the fact that winds move below the surface of the earth. When a south wind is going to blow there is a premonitory indication: a sound is heard in the places from which 15the eruptions issue. This is because the sea is being pushed on from a distance and its advance thrusts back into the earth the wind that was issuing from it. The reason why there is a noise and no earthquake is that the underground spaces are so extensive in proportion to the quantity of the 20air that is being driven on that the wind slips away into the void beyond.
Again, our theory is supported by the facts that the sun appears hazy and is darkened in the absence of clouds, and that there is sometimes calm and sharp frost before earthquakes at sunrise. The sun is necessarily obscured and darkened when the evaporation which dissolves and rarefies 25the air begins to withdraw into the earth. The calm, too, and the cold towards sunrise and dawn follow from the theory. The calm we have already explained. There must as a rule be calm because the wind flows back into the earth: again, it must be most marked before the more violent earthquakes, 30for when the wind is not part outside earth, part inside, but moves in a single body, its strength must be greater. The cold comes because the evaporation which is naturally and essentially hot enters the earth. (Wind is not recognized to be hot, because it sets the air in motion, and that is full of a quantity of cold vapour. It is the same with the breath we blow from our mouth: close by it is warm, as it is when we breathe out through the mouth, but there is so little of it that it is scarcely noticed, whereas at a distance it is cold for the same reason as wind.)
367b
1 ὥσπερ τὸ πνεῦμα <τὸ> διὰ τοῦ στόματος φυσώμενον· καὶ γὰρ
τοῦτο ἐγγύθεν μέν ἐστι θερμόν, ὥσπερ καὶ ὅταν ἀάζωμεν,
ἀλλὰ δι' ὀλιγότητα οὐχ ὁμοίως ἐπίδηλον, πόρρωθεν δὲ ψυχρὸν
διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν τοῖς ἀνέμοις. ἐκλειπούσης οὖν εἰς
5 τὴν γῆν τῆς τοιαύτης δυνάμεως, συνιοῦσα δι' ὑγρότητα ἡ
ἀτμιδώδης ἀπόρροια ποιεῖ τὸ ψῦχος, ἐν οἷς συμβαίνει τόποις
γίγνεσθαι τοῦτο τὸ πάθος. τὸ δ' αὐτὸ αἴτιον καὶ τοῦ εἰωθότος
ἐνίοτε γίγνεσθαι σημείου πρὸ τῶν σεισμῶν· ἢ γὰρ μεθ'
ἡμέραν ἢ μικρὸν μετὰ δυσμάς, αἰθρίας οὔσης, νεφέλιον λεπτὸν
10 φαίνεται διατεῖνον καὶ μακρόν, οἷον γραμμῆς μῆκος
εὐθύτητι διηκριβωμένον, τοῦ πνεύματος ἀπομαραινομένου διὰ
τὴν μετάστασιν. τὸ δ' ὅμοιον συμβαίνει καὶ ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ
περὶ τοὺς αἰγιαλούς· ὅταν μὲν γὰρ κυμαίνουσα ἐκβάλλῃ, σφόδρα
παχεῖαι καὶ σκολιαὶ γίγνονται αἱ ῥηγμῖνες, ὅταν δὲ
15 γαλήνη ᾖ, διὰ τὸ μικρὰν ποιεῖσθαι τὴν ἔκκρισιν λεπταί εἰσι
καὶ εὐθεῖαι. ὅπερ οὖν ἡ θάλαττα ποιεῖ περὶ τὴν γῆν, τοῦτο
τὸ πνεῦμα περὶ τὴν ἐν τῷ ἀέρι ἀχλύν, ὥσθ' ὅταν γένηται
νηνεμία, πάμπαν εὐθεῖαν καὶ λεπτὴν καταλείπεσθαι ὥσπερ
ῥηγμῖνα οὖσαν ἀέρος τὴν νεφέλην. διὰ ταῦτα δὲ καὶ περὶ
20 τὰς ἐκλείψεις ἐνίοτε τῆς σελήνης συμβαίνει γίγνεσθαι σεισμόν·
ὅταν γὰρ ἤδη πλησίον ᾖ ἡ ἀντίφραξις, καὶ μήπω
μὲν ᾖ πάμπαν ἀπολελοιπὸς τὸ φῶς καὶ τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου
θερμὸν ἐκ τοῦ ἀέρος, ἤδη δ' ἀπομαραινόμενον, νηνεμία γίγνεται
ἀντιμεθισταμένου τοῦ πνεύματος εἰς τὴν γῆν, ὃ ποιεῖ τὸν
25 σεισμὸν πρὸ τῶν ἐκλείψεων. γίγνονται γὰρ καὶ ἄνεμοι πρὸ
τῶν ἐκλείψεων πολλάκις, ἀκρόνυχον μὲν πρὸ τῶν μεσονυκτίων
ἐκλείψεων, μεσονύκτιον δὲ πρὸ τῶν ἑῴων. συμβαίνει
δὲ τοῦτο διὰ τὸ ἀμαυροῦσθαι τὸ θερμὸν τὸ ἀπὸ τῆς σελήνης,
ὅταν πλησίον ἤδη γίγνηται ἡ φορὰ ἐν ᾧ γενομένων ἔσται ἡ
30 ἔκλειψις. ἀνιεμένου οὖν ᾧ κατείχετο ὁ ἀὴρ καὶ ἠρέμει, πάλιν
κινεῖται καὶ γίγνεται πνεῦμα τῆς ὀψιαίτερον ἐκλείψεως
ὀψιαίτερον. ὅταν δ' ἰσχυρὸς γένηται σεισμός, οὐκ εὐθὺς οὐδ' εἰςάπαξ
παύεται σείσας, ἀλλὰ τὸ πρῶτον μὲν μέχρι περὶ
τετταράκοντα πρόεισι πολλάκις ἡμέρας, ὕστερον δὲ καὶ ἐφ'
1Well, when this evaporation disappears into 5the earth the vaporous exhalation concentrates and causes cold in any place in which this disappearance occurs.
A sign which sometimes precedes earthquakes can be explained in the same way. Either by day or a little after sunset, in fine weather, a little, light, long-drawn cloud 10is seen, like a long very straight line. This is because the wind is leaving the air and dying down. Something analogous to this happens on the sea-shore. When the sea breaks in great waves the marks left on the sand are very thick and crooked, but when the sea 15is calm they are slight and straight (because the secretion is small). As the sea is to the shore so the wind is to the cloudy air; so, when the wind drops, this very straight and thin cloud is left, a sort of wave-mark in the air.
20An earthquake sometimes coincides with an eclipse of the moon for the same reason. When the earth is on the point of being interposed, but the light and heat of the sun has not quite vanished from the air but is dying away, the wind which causes 25the earthquake before the eclipse, turns off into the earth, and calm ensues. For there often are winds before eclipses: at nightfall if the eclipse is at midnight, and at midnight if the eclipse is at dawn. They are caused by the lessening of the warmth from the moon when its sphere approaches the point at which the 30eclipse is going to take place. So the influence which restrained and quieted the air weakens and the air moves again and a wind rises, and does so later, the later the eclipse.
A severe earthquake does not stop at once or after a single shock, but first the shocks go on, often for about forty days; after that, for one or even two years it gives premonitory indications in the same place. The severity of the earthquake is determined by the quantity of wind and the shape of the passages through which it flows. Where it is beaten back and cannot easily find its way out the shocks are most violent, and there it must remain in a cramped space like water that cannot escape.
A sign which sometimes precedes earthquakes can be explained in the same way. Either by day or a little after sunset, in fine weather, a little, light, long-drawn cloud 10is seen, like a long very straight line. This is because the wind is leaving the air and dying down. Something analogous to this happens on the sea-shore. When the sea breaks in great waves the marks left on the sand are very thick and crooked, but when the sea 15is calm they are slight and straight (because the secretion is small). As the sea is to the shore so the wind is to the cloudy air; so, when the wind drops, this very straight and thin cloud is left, a sort of wave-mark in the air.
20An earthquake sometimes coincides with an eclipse of the moon for the same reason. When the earth is on the point of being interposed, but the light and heat of the sun has not quite vanished from the air but is dying away, the wind which causes 25the earthquake before the eclipse, turns off into the earth, and calm ensues. For there often are winds before eclipses: at nightfall if the eclipse is at midnight, and at midnight if the eclipse is at dawn. They are caused by the lessening of the warmth from the moon when its sphere approaches the point at which the 30eclipse is going to take place. So the influence which restrained and quieted the air weakens and the air moves again and a wind rises, and does so later, the later the eclipse.
A severe earthquake does not stop at once or after a single shock, but first the shocks go on, often for about forty days; after that, for one or even two years it gives premonitory indications in the same place. The severity of the earthquake is determined by the quantity of wind and the shape of the passages through which it flows. Where it is beaten back and cannot easily find its way out the shocks are most violent, and there it must remain in a cramped space like water that cannot escape.
368a
1 ἓν καὶ ἐπὶ δύο ἔτη ἐπισημαίνει κατὰ τοὺς αὐτοὺς τόπους. αἴτιον
δὲ τοῦ μὲν μεγέθους τὸ πλῆθος τοῦ πνεύματος καὶ τῶν
τόπων τὰ σχήματα δι' οἵων ἂν ῥυῇ· ᾗ γὰρ ἂν ἀντιτυπήσῃ
καὶ μὴ ῥᾳδίως διέλθῃ, μάλιστά τε σείει καὶ ἐγκαταλείπεσθαι
5 ἀναγκαῖον ἐν ταῖς δυσχωρίαις, οἷον ὕδωρ ἐν σκεύει οὐ δυνάμενον
διεξελθεῖν. διὸ καθάπερ ἐν σώματι οἱ σφυγμοὶ οὐκ ἐξαίφνης
παύονται οὐδὲ ταχέως, ἀλλ' ἐκ προσαγωγῆς ἅμα καταμαραινομένου
τοῦ πάθους, καὶ ἡ ἀρχὴ ἀφ' ἧς ἡ ἀναθυμίασις
ἐγένετο καὶ ἡ ὁρμὴ τοῦ πνεύματος δῆλον ὅτι οὐκ εὐθὺς
10 ἅπασαν ἀνήλωσεν τὴν ὕλην, ἐξ ἧς ἐποίησε τὸν ἄνεμον, ὃν
καλοῦμεν σεισμόν. ἕως ἂν οὖν ἀναλωθῇ τὰ ὑπόλοιπα τούτων,
ἀνάγκη σείειν, ἠρεμαιότερον δὲ καὶ μέχρι τούτου ἕως ἂν
ἔλαττον ᾖ τὸ ἀναθυμιώμενον ἢ ὥστε δύνασθαι κινεῖν ἐπιδήλως.
ποιεῖ δὲ καὶ τοὺς ψόφους τοὺς ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν γιγνομένους τὸ
15 πνεῦμα, καὶ τοὺς πρὸ τῶν σεισμῶν· καὶ ἄνευ δὲ σεισμῶν
ἤδη που γεγόνασιν ὑπὸ γῆν· ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ ῥαπιζόμενος ὁ ἀὴρ
παντοδαποὺς ἀφίησι ψόφους, οὕτως καὶ τύπτων αὐτός· οὐδὲν
γὰρ διαφέρει· τὸ γὰρ τύπτον ἅμα καὶ αὐτὸ τύπτεται πᾶν.
προέρχεται δὲ ὁ ψόφος τῆς κινήσεως διὰ τὸ λεπτομερέστερον
20 εἶναι καὶ μᾶλλον διὰ παντὸς ἰέναι τοῦ πνεύματος τὸν ψόφον.
ὅταν δ' ἔλαττον ᾖ ἢ ὥστε κινῆσαι τὴν γῆν διὰ λεπτότητα,
διὰ μὲν τὸ ῥᾳδίως διηθεῖσθαι οὐ δύναται κινεῖν, διὰ
δὲ τὸ προσπίπτειν στερεοῖς ὄγκοις καὶ κοίλοις καὶ παντοδαποῖς
σχήμασι παντοδαπὴν ἀφίησι φωνήν, ὥστ' ἐνίοτε δοκεῖν
25 ὅπερ λέγουσιν οἱ τερατολογοῦντες, μυκᾶσθαι τὴν γῆν.
ἤδη δὲ καὶ ὕδατα ἀνερράγη γιγνομένων σεισμῶν· ἀλλ' οὐ
διὰ τοῦτο αἴτιον τὸ ὕδωρ τῆς κινήσεως, ἀλλ' ἂν ᾖ ἐξ ἐπιπολῆς
ἢ κάτωθεν βιάζηται τὸ πνεῦμα, ἐκεῖνο τὸ κινοῦν
ἐστιν, ὥσπερ τῶν κυμάτων οἱ ἄνεμοι ἀλλ' οὐ τὰ κύματα
30 τῶν ἀνέμων εἰσὶν αἴτια, ἐπεὶ καὶ τὴν γῆν οὕτως ἄν τις αἰτιῷτο
τοῦ πάθους· ἀνατρέπεται γὰρ σειομένη, καθάπερ ὕδωρ
(ἡ γὰρ ἔκχυσις ἀνάτρεψίς τίς ἐστιν). ἀλλ' αἴτια ταῦτα μὲν
ἄμφω ὡς ὕλη (πάσχει γάρ, ἀλλ' οὐ ποιεῖ), τὸ δὲ πνεῦμα
ὡς ἀρχή. ὅπου δ' ἅμα κῦμα σεισμῷ γέγονεν, αἴτιον, ὅταν
35 ἐναντία γίγνηται τὰ πνεύματα. τοῦτο δὲ γίγνεται ὅταν τὸ
1Any throbbing in the body does not cease suddenly or quickly, but by degrees according as the 5affection passes off. So here the agency which created the evaporation and gave it an impulse to motion clearly does not at once 10exhaust the whole of the material from which it forms the wind which we call an earthquake. So until the rest of this is exhausted the shocks must continue, though more gently, and they must go on until there is too little of the evaporation left to have any perceptible effect on the earth at all.
Subterranean noises, too, are due to 15the wind; sometimes they portend earthquakes but sometimes they have been heard without any earthquake following. Just as the air gives off various sounds when it is struck, so it does when it strikes other things; for striking involves being struck and so the two cases are the same. The sound precedes the shock because sound is thinner 20and passes through things more readily than wind. But when the wind is too weak by reason of thinness to cause an earthquake the absence of a shock is due to its filtering through readily, though by striking hard and hollow masses of different shapes it makes various noises, so that the earth sometimes seems to 'bellow' 25as the portentmongers say.
Water has been known to burst out during an earthquake. But that does not make water the cause of the earthquake. The wind is the efficient cause whether it drives the water along the surface or up from below: just as winds are the causes of waves and not waves 30of winds. Else we might as well say that earth was the cause; for it is upset in an earthquake, just like water (for effusion is a form of upsetting). No, earth and water are material causes (being patients, not agents): the true cause is the wind.
The combination of a tidal wave with an earthquake is due to the presence of 35contrary winds. It occurs when the wind which is shaking the earth does not entirely succeed in driving off the sea which another wind is bringing on, but pushes it back and heaps it up in a great mass in one place. Given this situation it follows that when this wind gives way the whole body of the sea, driven on by the other wind, will burst out and overwhelm the land.
Subterranean noises, too, are due to 15the wind; sometimes they portend earthquakes but sometimes they have been heard without any earthquake following. Just as the air gives off various sounds when it is struck, so it does when it strikes other things; for striking involves being struck and so the two cases are the same. The sound precedes the shock because sound is thinner 20and passes through things more readily than wind. But when the wind is too weak by reason of thinness to cause an earthquake the absence of a shock is due to its filtering through readily, though by striking hard and hollow masses of different shapes it makes various noises, so that the earth sometimes seems to 'bellow' 25as the portentmongers say.
Water has been known to burst out during an earthquake. But that does not make water the cause of the earthquake. The wind is the efficient cause whether it drives the water along the surface or up from below: just as winds are the causes of waves and not waves 30of winds. Else we might as well say that earth was the cause; for it is upset in an earthquake, just like water (for effusion is a form of upsetting). No, earth and water are material causes (being patients, not agents): the true cause is the wind.
The combination of a tidal wave with an earthquake is due to the presence of 35contrary winds. It occurs when the wind which is shaking the earth does not entirely succeed in driving off the sea which another wind is bringing on, but pushes it back and heaps it up in a great mass in one place. Given this situation it follows that when this wind gives way the whole body of the sea, driven on by the other wind, will burst out and overwhelm the land.
368b
1 σεῖον τὴν γῆν πνεῦμα φερομένην ὑπ' ἄλλου πνεύματος τὴν
θάλατταν ἀπῶσαι μὲν ὅλως μὴ δύνηται, προωθοῦν δὲ καὶ
συστέλλον εἰς ταὐτὸν συναθροίσῃ πολλήν· τότε γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον
ἡττηθέντος τούτου τοῦ πνεύματος ἀθρόαν ὠθουμένην ὑπὸ
5 τοῦ ἐναντίου πνεύματος ἐκρήγνυσθαι καὶ ποιεῖν τὸν κατακλυσμόν.
ἐγένετο δὲ τοῦτο καὶ περὶ Ἀχαΐαν· ἔξω μὲν γὰρ
ἦν νότος, ἐκεῖ δὲ βορέας, νηνεμίας δὲ γενομένης καὶ ῥυέντος
εἴσω τοῦ ἀνέμου ἐγένετο τό τε κῦμα καὶ ὁ σεισμὸς ἅμα, καὶ
μᾶλλον διὰ τὸ τὴν θάλατταν μὴ διδόναι διαπνοὴν τῷ ὑπὸ
10 τὴν γῆν ὡρμημένῳ πνεύματι, ἀλλ' ἀντιφράττειν· ἀποβιαζόμενα
γὰρ ἄλληλα τὸ μὲν πνεῦμα τὸν σεισμὸν ἐποίησεν,
ἡ δ' ὑπόστασις τοῦ κύματος τὸν κατακλυσμόν. κατὰ μέρος
δὲ γίγνονται οἱ σεισμοὶ τῆς γῆς, καὶ πολλάκις ἐπὶ μικρὸν
τόπον, οἱ δ' ἄνεμοι οὔ· κατὰ μέρος μέν, ὅταν
15 αἱ ἀναθυμιάσεις αἱ κατὰ τὸν τόπον αὐτὸν καὶ τὸν γειτνιῶντα
συνέλθωσιν εἰς ἕν, ὥσπερ καὶ τοὺς αὐχμοὺς ἔφαμεν γίγνεσθαι
καὶ τὰς ὑπερομβρίας τὰς κατὰ μέρος. καὶ οἱ μὲν
σεισμοὶ γίγνονται διὰ τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον, οἱ δ' ἄνεμοι οὔ· τὰ
μὲν γὰρ ἐν τῇ γῇ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἔχει, ὥστ' ἐφ' ἓν ἁπάσας ὁρμᾶν·
20 ὁ δ' ἥλιος οὐχ ὁμοίως δύναται, τὰς δὲ μετεώρους μᾶλλον,
ὥστε ῥεῖν, ὅταν ἀρχὴν λάβωσιν ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ ἡλίου φορᾶς
ἤδη κατὰ τὰς διαφορὰς τῶν τόπων, ἐφ' ἕν. ὅταν μὲν
οὖν ᾖ πολὺ τὸ πνεῦμα, κινεῖ τὴν γῆν, ὥσπερ δὲ ὁ τρόμος,
ἐπὶ πλάτος· γίγνεται δ' ὀλιγάκις καὶ κατά τινας τόπους,
25 οἷον σφυγμός, ἄνω κάτωθεν· διὸ καὶ ἐλαττονάκις
σείει τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον· οὐ γὰρ [δίδωσιν] ῥᾴδιον οὕτω πολλὴν
συνελθεῖν ἀρχήν· ἐπὶ μῆκος γὰρ πολλαπλασία τῆς ἀπὸ
τοῦ βάθους ἡ διάκρισις. ὅπου δ' ἂν γένηται τοιοῦτος σεισμός,
ἐπιπολάζει πλῆθος λίθων, ὥσπερ τῶν ἐν τοῖς λίκνοις ἀναβραττομένων·
30 τοῦτον γὰρ τὸν τρόπον γενομένου σεισμοῦ τά τε
περὶ Σίπυλον ἀνετράπη καὶ τὸ Φλεγραῖον καλούμενον πεδίον
καὶ τὰ περὶ τὴν Λιγυστικὴν χώραν. ἐν δὲ ταῖς νήσοις ταῖς
ποντίαις ἧττον γίγνονται σεισμοὶ τῶν προσγείων· τὸ γὰρ πλῆθος
τῆς θαλάττης καταψύχει τὰς ἀναθυμιάσεις καὶ κωλύει
35 τῷ βάρει καὶ ἀποβιάζεται· ἔτι δὲ ῥεῖ καὶ οὐ σείεται
1This is what happened in Achaea. There a south wind was blowing, but outside a north wind; then there was a calm and the 5wind entered the earth, and then the tidal wave came on and simultaneously there was an earthquake. This was the more violent as the sea allowed no exit to 10the wind that had entered the earth, but shut it in. So in their struggle with one another the wind caused the earthquake, and the wave by its settling down the inundation.
Earthquakes are local and often affect a small district only; whereas winds are not local. Such phenomena are local when 15the evaporations at a given place are joined by those from the next and unite; this, as we explained, is what happens when there is drought or excessive rain locally. Now earthquakes do come about in this way but winds do not. For earthquakes, rains, and droughts have their source and origin inside the earth, so that 20the sun is not equally able to direct all the evaporations in one direction. But on the evaporations in the air the sun has more influence so that, when once they have been given an impulse by its motion, which is determined by its various positions, they flow in one direction.
When the wind is present in sufficient quantity there is an earthquake. The shocks are horizontal like a tremor; except occasionally, in a few places, where they act vertically, 25upwards from below, like a throbbing. It is the vertical direction which makes this kind of earthquake so rare. The motive force does not easily accumulate in great quantity in the position required, since the surface of the earth secretes far more of the evaporation than its depths. 30Wherever an earthquake of this kind does occur a quantity of stones comes to the surface of the earth (as when you throw up things in a winnowing fan), as we see from Sipylus and the Phlegraean plain and the district in Liguria, which were devastated by this kind of earthquake.
Islands in the middle of the sea are less exposed to earthquakes than those near land. First, the volume of the sea cools the evaporations and overpowers them 35by its weight and so crushes them.
Earthquakes are local and often affect a small district only; whereas winds are not local. Such phenomena are local when 15the evaporations at a given place are joined by those from the next and unite; this, as we explained, is what happens when there is drought or excessive rain locally. Now earthquakes do come about in this way but winds do not. For earthquakes, rains, and droughts have their source and origin inside the earth, so that 20the sun is not equally able to direct all the evaporations in one direction. But on the evaporations in the air the sun has more influence so that, when once they have been given an impulse by its motion, which is determined by its various positions, they flow in one direction.
When the wind is present in sufficient quantity there is an earthquake. The shocks are horizontal like a tremor; except occasionally, in a few places, where they act vertically, 25upwards from below, like a throbbing. It is the vertical direction which makes this kind of earthquake so rare. The motive force does not easily accumulate in great quantity in the position required, since the surface of the earth secretes far more of the evaporation than its depths. 30Wherever an earthquake of this kind does occur a quantity of stones comes to the surface of the earth (as when you throw up things in a winnowing fan), as we see from Sipylus and the Phlegraean plain and the district in Liguria, which were devastated by this kind of earthquake.
Islands in the middle of the sea are less exposed to earthquakes than those near land. First, the volume of the sea cools the evaporations and overpowers them 35by its weight and so crushes them.
369a
1 κρατουμένη ὑπὸ τῶν πνευμάτων· καὶ διὰ τὸ πολὺν ἐπέχειν
τόπον οὐκ εἰς ταύτην ἀλλ' ἐκ ταύτης αἱ ἀναθυμιάσεις γίγνονται,
καὶ ταύταις ἀκολουθοῦσιν αἱ ἐκ τῆς γῆς. αἱ δ' ἐγγὺς
τῆς ἠπείρου μόριόν εἰσιν τῆς ἠπείρου· τὸ γὰρ μεταξὺ διὰ
5 μικρότητα οὐδεμίαν ἔχει δύναμιν· τὰς δὲ ποντίας οὐκ ἔστιν κινῆσαι
ἄνευ τῆς θαλάττης ὅλης, ὑφ' ἧς περιεχόμεναι τυγχάνουσιν.
περὶ μὲν οὖν σεισμῶν, καὶ τίς ἡ φύσις, καὶ
διὰ τίνα αἰτίαν γίγνονται, καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν συμβαινόντων
περὶ αὐτούς, εἴρηται σχεδὸν περὶ τῶν μεγίστων.
1Then, currents and not shocks are produced in the sea by the action of the winds. Again, it is so extensive that evaporations do not collect in it but issue from it, and these draw the evaporations from the earth after them. Islands near the continent really form part of it: the intervening sea 5is not enough to make any difference; but those in the open sea can only be shaken if the whole of the sea that surrounds them is shaken too.
We have now explained earthquakes, their nature and cause, and the most important of the circumstances attendant on their appearance.
We have now explained earthquakes, their nature and cause, and the most important of the circumstances attendant on their appearance.
Book 2,Chapter 9 (369a10–370a33)
10 περὶ δὲ ἀστραπῆς καὶ βροντῆς, ἔτι δὲ περὶ τυφῶνος
καὶ πρηστῆρος καὶ κεραυνῶν λέγωμεν· καὶ γὰρ τούτων τὴν
αὐτὴν ἀρχὴν ὑπολαβεῖν δεῖ πάντων. τῆς γὰρ ἀναθυμιάσεως,
ὥσπερ εἴπομεν, οὔσης διττῆς, τῆς μὲν ὑγρᾶς τῆς
δὲ ξηρᾶς, καὶ τῆς συγκρίσεως ἐχούσης ἄμφω ταῦτα δυνάμει
15 καὶ συνισταμένης εἰς νέφος, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον,
ἔτι δὲ πυκνοτέρας τῆς συστάσεως τῶν νεφῶν γιγνομένης πρὸς
τὸ ἔσχατον πέρας (ᾗ γὰρ ἐκλείπει τὸ θερμὸν διακρινόμενον
εἰς τὸν ἄνω τόπον, ταύτῃ πυκνοτέραν καὶ ψυχροτέραν
ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι τὴν σύστασιν· διὸ καὶ οἱ κεραυνοὶ καὶ οἱ ἐκνεφίαι
20 καὶ πάντα τὰ τοιαῦτα φέρεται κάτω, καίτοι πεφυκότος
ἄνω τοῦ θερμοῦ φέρεσθαι παντός· ἀλλ' εἰς τοὐναντίον
τῆς πυκνότητος ἀναγκαῖον γίγνεσθαι τὴν ἔκθλιψιν, οἷον οἱ
πυρῆνες οἱ ἐκ τῶν δακτύλων ἐκπηδῶντες· καὶ γὰρ ταῦτα βάρος
ἔχοντα φέρεται πολλάκις ἄνω)· ἡ μὲν οὖν ἐκκρινομένη
25 θερμότης εἰς τὸν ἄνω διασπείρεται τόπον· ὅση δ' ἐμπεριλαμβάνεται
τῆς ξηρᾶς ἀναθυμιάσεως ἐν τῇ μεταβολῇ ψυχομένου
τοῦ ἀέρος, αὕτη συνιόντων τῶν νεφῶν ἐκκρίνεται,
βίᾳ δὲ φερομένη καὶ προσπίπτουσα τοῖς περιεχομένοις νέφεσι
ποιεῖ πληγήν, ἧς ὁ ψόφος καλεῖται βροντή. γίγνεται
30 δ' ἡ πληγὴ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον, ὡς παρεικάσαι μείζονι μικρὸν
πάθος, τῷ ἐν τῇ φλογὶ γιγνομένῳ ψόφῳ, ὃν καλοῦσιν
οἱ μὲν τὸν Ἥφαιστον γελᾶν, οἱ δὲ τὴν Ἑστίαν, οἱ δ' ἀπειλὴν
τούτων. γίγνεται δ' ὅταν ἡ ἀναθυμίασις εἰς τὴν φλόγα
συνεστραμμένη φέρηται, ῥηγνυμένων καὶ ξηραινομένων τῶν
35 ξύλων· οὕτως γὰρ καὶ ἐν τοῖς νέφεσι ἡ γιγνομένη τοῦ πνεύματος
ἔκκρισις πρὸς τὴν πυκνότητα τῶν νεφῶν ἐμπίπτουσα
10Let us go on to explain lightning and thunder, and further whirlwind, fire-wind, and thunderbolts: for the cause of them all is the same.
As we have said, there are two kinds of exhalation, moist and dry, and the atmosphere contains them both potentially. 15It, as we have said before, condenses into cloud, and the density of the clouds is highest at their upper limit. (For they must be denser and colder on the side where the heat escapes to the upper region and leaves them. This explains why hurricanes and thunderbolts 20and all analogous phenomena move downwards in spite of the fact that everything hot has a natural tendency upwards. Just as the pips that we squeeze between our fingers are heavy but often jump upwards: so these things are necessarily squeezed out away from the densest part of the cloud.) Now 25the heat that escapes disperses to the up region. But if any of the dry exhalation is caught in the process as the air cools, it is squeezed out as the clouds contract, and collides in its rapid course with the neighbouring clouds, and the sound of this collision is what we call thunder. 30This collision is analogous, to compare small with great, to the sound we hear in a flame which men call the laughter or the threat of Hephaestus or of Hestia. This occurs when the 35wood dries and cracks and the exhalation rushes on the flame in a body. So in the clouds, the exhalation is projected and its impact on dense clouds causes thunder: the variety of the sound is due to the irregularity of the clouds and the hollows that intervene where their density is interrupted. This then, is thunder, and this its cause.
As we have said, there are two kinds of exhalation, moist and dry, and the atmosphere contains them both potentially. 15It, as we have said before, condenses into cloud, and the density of the clouds is highest at their upper limit. (For they must be denser and colder on the side where the heat escapes to the upper region and leaves them. This explains why hurricanes and thunderbolts 20and all analogous phenomena move downwards in spite of the fact that everything hot has a natural tendency upwards. Just as the pips that we squeeze between our fingers are heavy but often jump upwards: so these things are necessarily squeezed out away from the densest part of the cloud.) Now 25the heat that escapes disperses to the up region. But if any of the dry exhalation is caught in the process as the air cools, it is squeezed out as the clouds contract, and collides in its rapid course with the neighbouring clouds, and the sound of this collision is what we call thunder. 30This collision is analogous, to compare small with great, to the sound we hear in a flame which men call the laughter or the threat of Hephaestus or of Hestia. This occurs when the 35wood dries and cracks and the exhalation rushes on the flame in a body. So in the clouds, the exhalation is projected and its impact on dense clouds causes thunder: the variety of the sound is due to the irregularity of the clouds and the hollows that intervene where their density is interrupted. This then, is thunder, and this its cause.
369b
1 ποιεῖ τὴν βροντήν. παντοδαποὶ δὲ ψόφοι διὰ τὴν ἀνωμαλίαν
τε γίγνονται τῶν νεφῶν καὶ διὰ τὰς μεταξὺ κοιλίας, ᾗ
τὸ συνεχὲς ἐκλείπει τῆς πυκνότητος. ἡ μὲν οὖν βροντὴ τοῦτ'
ἔστι, καὶ γίγνεται διὰ ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν· τὸ δὲ πνεῦμα τὸ
5 ἐκθλιβόμενον τὰ πολλὰ μὲν ἐκπυροῦται λεπτῇ καὶ ἀσθενεῖ
πυρώσει, καὶ τοῦτ' ἔστιν ἣν καλοῦμεν ἀστραπήν, ᾗ ἂν ὥσπερ
ἐκπῖπτον τὸ πνεῦμα χρωματισθὲν ὀφθῇ. γίγνεται δὲ μετὰ
τὴν πληγὴν καὶ ὕστερον τῆς βροντῆς· ἀλλὰ φαίνεται πρότερον
διὰ τὸ τὴν ὄψιν προτερεῖν τῆς ἀκοῆς. δηλοῖ δ' ἐπὶ τῆς
10 εἰρεσίας τῶν τριήρων· ἤδη γὰρ ἀναφερόντων πάλιν τὰς κώπας
ὁ πρῶτος ἀφικνεῖται ψόφος τῆς κωπηλασίας. καίτοι
τινὲς λέγουσιν ὡς ἐν τοῖς νέφεσιν ἐγγίγνεται πῦρ· τοῦτο δ' Ἐμπεδοκλῆς
μέν φησιν εἶναι τὸ ἐμπεριλαμβανόμενον τῶν τοῦ
ἡλίου ἀκτίνων, Ἀναξαγόρας δὲ τοῦ ἄνωθεν αἰθέρος, ὃ δὴ ἐκεῖνος
15 καλεῖ πῦρ κατενεχθὲν ἄνωθεν κάτω. τὴν μὲν οὖν διάλαμψιν
ἀστραπὴν εἶναι τὴν τούτου τοῦ πυρός, τὸν δὲ ψόφον ἐναποσβεννυμένου
καὶ τὴν σίξιν βροντήν, ὡς καθάπερ φαίνεται
καὶ γιγνόμενον οὕτως καὶ πρότερον τὴν ἀστραπὴν οὖσαν τῆς
βροντῆς. ἄλογος δὲ καὶ ἡ τοῦ πυρὸς ἐμπερίληψις, ἀμφοτέρως
20 μέν, μᾶλλον δ' ἡ κατάσπασις τοῦ ἄνωθεν αἰθέρος.
τοῦ τε γὰρ κάτω φέρεσθαι τὸ πεφυκὸς ἄνω δεῖ λέγεσθαι
τὴν αἰτίαν, καὶ διὰ τί ποτε τοῦτο γίγνεται κατὰ τὸν οὐρανὸν
ὅταν ἐπινέφελον ᾖ μόνον, ἀλλ' οὐ συνεχῶς οὕτως· αἰθρίας δὲ
οὔσης οὐ γίγνεται. τοῦτο γὰρ παντάπασιν ἔοικεν εἰρῆσθαι προχείρως.
25 ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὸ τὴν ἀπὸ τῶν ἀκτίνων θερμότητα
φάναι τὴν ἀπολαμβανομένην ἐν τοῖς νέφεσιν εἶναι τούτων αἰτίαν
οὐ πιθανόν· καὶ γὰρ οὗτος ὁ λόγος ἀπραγμόνως εἴρηται
λίαν· ἀποκεκριμένον τε γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι τὸ αἴτιον ἀεὶ
καὶ ὡρισμένον, τό τε τῆς βροντῆς καὶ τῆς ἀστραπῆς καὶ τῶν
30 ἄλλων τῶν τοιούτων, καὶ οὕτω γίγνεσθαι. τοῦτο δὲ διαφέρει
πλεῖστον· ὅμοιον γὰρ κἂν εἴ τις οἴοιτο τὸ ὕδωρ καὶ τὴν χιόνα
καὶ τὴν χάλαζαν ἐνυπάρχοντα πρότερον ὕστερον ἐκκρίνεσθαι
καὶ μὴ γίγνεσθαι, οἷον ὑπὸ χεῖρα ποιούσης ἀεὶ τῆς συγκρίσεως
ἕκαστον αὐτῶν· ὡσαύτως γὰρ ἐκεῖνά τε συγκρίσεις
35 καὶ ταῦτα διακρίσεις ὑποληπτέον εἶναι, ὥστ' εἰ θάτερα τούτων
μὴ γίγνεται ἀλλ' ἔστι, περὶ ἀμφοτέρων ὁ αὐτὸς ἀρμόσει
1It usually happens that the exhalation that is ejected is inflamed and burns with a thin and faint fire: this is what we call lightning, where we see as it were the exhalation coloured in the act of its ejection. It comes into existence after the collision and the thunder, though we see it earlier because sight is quicker than hearing. 10The rowing of triremes illustrates this: the oars are going back again before the sound of their striking the water reaches us.
However, there are some who maintain that there is actually fire in the clouds. Empedocles says that it consists of some of the sun's rays which are intercepted: Anaxagoras that it is part of the upper ether (which he 15calls fire) which has descended from above. Lightning, then, is the gleam of this fire, and thunder the hissing noise of its extinction in the cloud.
But this involves the view that lightning actually is prior to thunder and does not merely appear to be so. Again, this intercepting of the fire is impossible on either theory, 20but especially it is said to be drawn down from the upper ether. Some reason ought to be given why that which naturally ascends should descend, and why it should not always do so, but only when it is cloudy. When the sky is clear there is no lightning: to say that there is, is altogether wanton.
25The view that the heat of the sun's rays intercepted in the clouds is the cause of these phenomena is equally unattractive: this, too, is a most careless explanation. Thunder, lightning, and 30the rest must have a separate and determinate cause assigned to them on which they ensue. But this theory does nothing of the sort. It is like supposing that water, snow, and hail existed all along and were produced when the time came and not generated at all, as if the atmosphere brought each to hand out of its stock from time to time. They are concretions in the same way as 35thunder and lightning are discretions, so that if it is true of either that they are not generated but pre-exist, the same must be true of the other. Again, how can any distinction be made about the intercepting between this case and that of interception in denser substances such as water?
However, there are some who maintain that there is actually fire in the clouds. Empedocles says that it consists of some of the sun's rays which are intercepted: Anaxagoras that it is part of the upper ether (which he 15calls fire) which has descended from above. Lightning, then, is the gleam of this fire, and thunder the hissing noise of its extinction in the cloud.
But this involves the view that lightning actually is prior to thunder and does not merely appear to be so. Again, this intercepting of the fire is impossible on either theory, 20but especially it is said to be drawn down from the upper ether. Some reason ought to be given why that which naturally ascends should descend, and why it should not always do so, but only when it is cloudy. When the sky is clear there is no lightning: to say that there is, is altogether wanton.
25The view that the heat of the sun's rays intercepted in the clouds is the cause of these phenomena is equally unattractive: this, too, is a most careless explanation. Thunder, lightning, and 30the rest must have a separate and determinate cause assigned to them on which they ensue. But this theory does nothing of the sort. It is like supposing that water, snow, and hail existed all along and were produced when the time came and not generated at all, as if the atmosphere brought each to hand out of its stock from time to time. They are concretions in the same way as 35thunder and lightning are discretions, so that if it is true of either that they are not generated but pre-exist, the same must be true of the other. Again, how can any distinction be made about the intercepting between this case and that of interception in denser substances such as water?
370a
1 λόγος. τήν τ' ἐναπόληψιν τί ἂν ἀλλοιότερον λέγοι τις
ἢ καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς πυκνοτέροις; καὶ γὰρ τὸ ὕδωρ ὑπὸ τοῦ
ἡλίου καὶ τοῦ πυρὸς γίγνεται θερμόν· ἀλλ' ὅμως ὅταν πάλιν
συνίῃ καὶ ψύχηται τὸ ὕδωρ πηγνύμενον, οὐδεμίαν συμβαίνει
5 γίγνεσθαι τοιαύτην ἔκπτωσιν οἵαν ἐκεῖνοι λέγουσιν. καίτοι γ'
ἐχρῆν κατὰ λόγον τοῦ μεγέθους τὴν ζέσιν ποιεῖν τὸ ἐγγιγνόμενον
πνεῦμα ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρός, ἣν οὔτε δυνατὸν ἐνυπάρχειν
πρότερον, οὔτ' ἐκεῖνοι τὸν ψόφον ζέσιν ποιοῦσιν ἀλλὰ σίξιν·
ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἡ σίξις μικρὰ ζέσις· ᾗ γὰρ τὸ προσπῖπτον κρατεῖ
10 σβεννύμενον, ταύτῃ ζέον ποιεῖ τὸν ψόφον. εἰσὶ δέ τινες οἳ
τὴν ἀστραπήν, ὥσπερ καὶ Κλείδημος, οὐκ εἶναί φασιν ἀλλὰ
φαίνεσθαι, παρεικάζοντες ὡς τὸ πάθος ὅμοιον ὂν καὶ ὅταν
τὴν θάλαττάν τις ῥάβδῳ τύπτῃ· φαίνεται γὰρ τὸ ὕδωρ
ἀποστίλβον τῆς νυκτός· οὕτως ἐν τῇ νεφέλῃ ῥαπιζομένου τοῦ
15 ὑγροῦ τὴν φάντασιν τῆς λαμπρότητος εἶναι τὴν ἀστραπήν.
οὗτοι μὲν οὖν οὔπω συνήθεις ἦσαν ταῖς περὶ τῆς ἀνακλάσεως
δόξαις, ὅπερ αἴτιον δοκεῖ τοῦ τοιούτου πάθους εἶναι· φαίνεται
γὰρ τὸ ὕδωρ στίλβειν τυπτόμενον ἀνακλωμένης ἀπ' αὐτοῦ τῆς
ὄψεως πρός τι τῶν λαμπρῶν. διὸ καὶ γίγνεται μᾶλλον τοῦτο
20 νύκτωρ· τῆς γὰρ ἡμέρας οὐ φαίνεται διὰ τὸ πλέον ὂν τὸ
φέγγος τὸ τῆς ἡμέρας ἀφανίζειν. τὰ μὲν οὖν λεγόμενα περὶ
βροντῆς τε καὶ ἀστραπῆς παρὰ τῶν ἄλλων ταῦτ' ἐστί, τῶν μὲν
ὅτι ἀνάκλασις ἡ ἀστραπή, τῶν δ' ὅτι πυρὸς μὲν ἡ ἀστραπὴ
διάλαμψις, ἡ δὲ βροντὴ σβέσις, οὐκ ἐγγιγνομένου παρ' ἕκαστον
25 πάθος τοῦ πυρὸς ἀλλ' ἐνυπάρχοντος. ἡμεῖς δέ φαμεν
τὴν αὐτὴν εἶναι φύσιν ἐπὶ μὲν τῆς γῆς ἄνεμον, ἐν δὲ τῇ γῇ
σεισμόν, ἐν δὲ τοῖς νέφεσι βροντήν· πάντα γὰρ εἶναι ταῦτα
τὴν οὐσίαν ταὐτόν, ἀναθυμίασιν ξηράν, ἣ ῥέουσα μέν πως
ἄνεμός ἐστιν, ὡδὶ δὲ ποιεῖ τοὺς σεισμούς, ἐν δὲ τοῖς νέφεσι
30 μεταβάλλουσα διακρινομένη, συνιόντων καὶ συγκρινομένων
αὐτῶν εἰς ὕδωρ, βροντάς τε καὶ ἀστραπὰς καὶ πρὸς τούτοις
τἆλλα τὰ τῆς αὐτῆς φύσεως τούτοις ὄντα. καὶ περὶ μὲν
βροντῆς εἴρηται καὶ ἀστραπῆς.
1Water, too, is heated by the sun and by fire: yet when it contracts again and grows cold and freezes 5no such ejection as they describe occurs, though it ought on their the. to take place on a proportionate scale. Boiling is due to the exhalation generated by fire: but it is impossible for it to exist in the water beforehand; and besides they call the noise 'hissing', not 'boiling'. But hissing is really boiling on a small scale: for when that which is brought into contact with moisture and is in process of 10being extinguished gets the better of it, then it boils and makes the noise in question. Some-Cleidemus is one of them-say that lightning is nothing objective but merely an appearance. They compare it to what happens when you strike the sea with a rod by night and the water is seen to shine. They say that the 15moisture in the cloud is beaten about in the same way, and that lightning is the appearance of brightness that ensues.
This theory is due to ignorance of the theory of reflection, which is the real cause of that phenomenon. The water appears to shine when struck because our sight is reflected from it to some bright object: hence the phenomenon occurs mainly 20by night: the appearance is not seen by day because the daylight is too in, tense and obscures it.
These are the theories of others about thunder and lightning: some maintaining that lightning is a reflection, the others that lightning is fire shining through the cloud and thunder its extinction, the fire not being generated in each 25case but existing beforehand. We say that the same stuff is wind on the earth, and earthquake under it, and in the clouds thunder. The essential constituent of all these phenomena is the same: namely, the dry exhalation. If it flows in one direction it is wind, in another it causes earthquakes; in the clouds, when they are 30in a process of change and contract and condense into water, it is ejected and causes </A
This theory is due to ignorance of the theory of reflection, which is the real cause of that phenomenon. The water appears to shine when struck because our sight is reflected from it to some bright object: hence the phenomenon occurs mainly 20by night: the appearance is not seen by day because the daylight is too in, tense and obscures it.
These are the theories of others about thunder and lightning: some maintaining that lightning is a reflection, the others that lightning is fire shining through the cloud and thunder its extinction, the fire not being generated in each 25case but existing beforehand. We say that the same stuff is wind on the earth, and earthquake under it, and in the clouds thunder. The essential constituent of all these phenomena is the same: namely, the dry exhalation. If it flows in one direction it is wind, in another it causes earthquakes; in the clouds, when they are 30in a process of change and contract and condense into water, it is ejected and causes </A