Drossaart Lulofs (OCT, 1965) · Platt (1910)
Platt (1910)
Greek line numbers are exact. The translations carry no Bekker numbers of their own, so those beside the English are aligned to the Greek: upright = fixed (anchored to this point in the text), italic grey = approximate (interpolated estimate).
Book 2,Chapter 1 (731b18–735a28)
731b
Τὸ δὲ θῆλυ καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν ὅτι μέν εἰσιν ἀρχαὶ γενέσεως
εἴρηται πρότερον, καὶ τίς ἡ δύναμις καὶ ὁ λόγος τῆς
20 οὐσίας αὐτῶν· διὰ τί δὲ γίγνεται καὶ ἔστι τὸ μὲν θῆλυ τὸ δ'
ἄρρεν, ὡς μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης καὶ τοῦ πρώτου κινοῦντος καὶ ὁποίας
ὕλης, προϊόντα πειρᾶσθαι δεῖ φράζειν τὸν λόγον, ὡς δὲ διὰ
τὸ βέλτιον καὶ τὴν αἰτίαν τὴν ἕνεκά τινος ἄνωθεν ἔχει τὴν
ἀρχήν. ἐπεὶ γάρ ἐστι τὰ μὲν ἀΐδια καὶ θεῖα τῶν ὄντων, τὰ
25 δ' ἐνδεχόμενα καὶ εἶναι καὶ μὴ εἶναι, τὸ δὲ καλὸν καὶ τὸ
θεῖον αἴτιον ἀεὶ κατὰ τὴν αὑτοῦ φύσιν τοῦ βελτίονος ἐν τοῖς
ἐνδεχομένοις, τὸ δὲ μὴ ἀΐδιον ἐνδεχόμενόν ἐστι καὶ εἶναι <καὶ μὴ
εἶναι> καὶ μεταλαμβάνειν καὶ τοῦ χείρονος καὶ τοῦ βελτίονος· βέλτιον
δὲ ψυχὴ μὲν σώματος, τὸ δ' ἔμψυχον τοῦ ἀψύχου διὰ τὴν
30 ψυχὴν καὶ τὸ εἶναι τοῦ μὴ εἶναι καὶ τὸ ζῆν τοῦ μὴ ζῆν,
—διὰ ταύτας τὰς αἰτίας γένεσις ζῴων ἐστίν· ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἀδύνατος
ἡ φύσις τοῦ τοιούτου γένους ἀΐδιος εἶναι, καθ' ὃν ἐνδέχεται
τρόπον, κατὰ τοῦτόν ἐστιν ἀΐδιον τὸ γιγνόμενον. ἀριθμῷ μὲν οὖν
ἀδύνατον—ἡ γὰρ οὐσία τῶν ὄντων ἐν τῷ καθ' ἕκαστον· τοιοῦτον
35 δ' εἴπερ ἦν ἀΐδιον ἂν ἦν—εἴδει δ' ἐνδέχεται. διὸ γένος ἀεὶ
THAT the male and the female are the principles of generation has been previously stated, as also what is their power and their essence. But why is it that one thing becomes 20and is male, another female? It is the business of our discussion as it proceeds to try and point out (1) that the sexes arise from Necessity and the first efficient cause, (2) from what sort of material they are formed. That (3) they exist because it is better and on account of the final cause, takes us back to a principle still further remote.
Now (1) some existing things are eternal and divine whilst others admit of both existence and 25non-existence. But (2) that which is noble and divine is always, in virtue of its own nature, the cause of the better in such things as admit of being better or worse, and what is not eternal does admit of existence and non-existence, and can partake in the better and the worse. And (3) soul is better than body, and living, having soul, is thereby better than the lifeless which has none, and being is better than not being, living than not 30living. These, then, are the reasons of the generation of animals. For since it is impossible that such a class of things as animals should be of an eternal nature, therefore that which comes into being is eternal in the only way possible. Now it is impossible for it to be eternal as an individual (though of course the real essence of things is in the individual)— were it such it would be eternal — but it is possible for it as a species.
Now (1) some existing things are eternal and divine whilst others admit of both existence and 25non-existence. But (2) that which is noble and divine is always, in virtue of its own nature, the cause of the better in such things as admit of being better or worse, and what is not eternal does admit of existence and non-existence, and can partake in the better and the worse. And (3) soul is better than body, and living, having soul, is thereby better than the lifeless which has none, and being is better than not being, living than not 30living. These, then, are the reasons of the generation of animals. For since it is impossible that such a class of things as animals should be of an eternal nature, therefore that which comes into being is eternal in the only way possible. Now it is impossible for it to be eternal as an individual (though of course the real essence of things is in the individual)— were it such it would be eternal — but it is possible for it as a species.
732a
1 ἀνθρώπων καὶ ζῴων ἐστὶ καὶ φυτῶν. ἐπεὶ δὲ τούτων ἀρχὴ
τὸ θῆλυ καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν ἕνεκα τῆς γενέσεως ἂν εἴη τὸ θῆλυ
καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν ἐν τοῖςἔχουσιν <ἔχ>ουσιν. βελτίονος δὲ καὶ θειοτέρας τὴν φύσιν
οὔσης τῆς αἰτίας τῆς κινούσης πρώτης—ᾗ ὁ λόγος ὑπάρχει
5 καὶ τὸ εἶδος—τῆς ὕλης, βέλτιον καὶ τὸ κεχωρίσθαι τὸ κρεῖττον
τοῦ χείρονος. διὰ τοῦτ' ἐν ὅσοις ἐνδέχεται καὶ καθ' ὅσον
ἐνδέχεται κεχώρισται τοῦ θήλεος τὸ ἄρρεν· βέλτιον γὰρ καὶ
θειότερον ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως ᾗ τὸ ἄρρεν ὑπάρχει τοῖς γιγνομένοις—ὕλη
δὲ τὸ θῆλυ. συνέρχεται δὲ καὶ μίγνυται
10 πρὸς τὴν ἐργασίαν τῆς γενέσεως τῷ θήλει τὸ ἄρρεν· αὕτη
γὰρ κοινὴ ἀμφοτέροις. Κατὰ μὲν οὖν τὸ μετέχειν τοῦ θήλεος
καὶ τοῦ ἄρρενος ζῇ (διὸ καὶ τὰ φυτὰ μετέχει ζωῆς), κατὰ
δὲ τὴν αἴσθησιν τὸ τῶν ζῴων ἐστὶ γένος. τούτων δὲ σχεδὸν ἐν
πᾶσι τοῖς πορευτικοῖς κεχώρισται τὸ θῆλυ καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν διὰ
15 τὰς εἰρημένας αἰτίας· καὶ τούτων τὰ μέν, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη,
προΐεται σπέρμα, τὰ δ' οὐ προΐεται ἐν τῷ συνδυασμῷ. τούτου
δ' αἴτιον ὅτι τὰ τιμιώτερα καὶ αὐταρκέστερα τὴν φύσιν ἐστίν,
ὥστε μεγέθους μετειληφέναι. τοῦτο δ' οὐκ ἄνευ θερμότητος ψυχικῆς·
ἀνάγκη γὰρ τὸ μεῖζον ὑπὸ πλείονος κινεῖσθαι δυνάμεως,
20 τὸ δὲ θερμὸν κινητικόν. διόπερ ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πᾶν βλέψαντας
εἰπεῖν τὰ ἔναιμα μείζω τῶν ἀναίμων καὶ τὰ πορευτικὰ
τῶν μονίμων ζῴων· ἅπερ προΐεται σπέρμα διὰ τὴν
θερμότητα καὶ τὸ μέγεθος.
Καὶ περὶ μὲν ἄρρενος καὶ θήλεος δι' ἣν αἰτίαν ἐστὶν
25 ἑκάτερον εἴρηται. Τῶν δὲ ζῴων τὰ μὲν τελεσιουργεῖ καὶ ἐκπέμπει
θύραζε ὅμοιον ἑαυτῷ, οἷον ὅσα ζῳοτοκεῖ εἰς τοὐμφανές,
τὰ δὲ ἀδιάρθρωτον ἐκτίκτει καὶ οὐκ ἀπειληφὸς τὴν
αὑτοῦ μορφήν. τῶν δὲ τοιούτων τὰ μὲν ἔναιμα ᾠοτοκεῖ, τὰ
δ' ἄναιμα σκωληκοτοκεῖ. διαφέρει δ' ᾠὸν καὶ σκώληξ· ᾠὸν
30 μὲν γάρ ἐστιν ἐξ οὗ γίγνεται τὸ γιγνόμενον ἐκ μέρους (τὸ δὲ λοιπόν
ἐστι τροφὴ τῷ γιγνομένῳ), σκώληξ δ' ἐξ οὗ τὸ γιγνόμενον
ὅλου ὅλον γίγνεται. τῶν δὲ εἰς τὸ φανερὸν ὅμοιον ἀποτελούντων
ζῷον καὶ ζῳοτοκούντων τὰ μὲν εὐθὺς ἐν αὑτοῖς ζῳοτοκεῖ, οἷον
ἄνθρωπος καὶ ἵππος καὶ βοῦς καὶ τῶν θαλαττίων δὲ δελφὶς
35 καὶ τἆλλα τὰ τοιαῦτα, τὰ δ' ἐν αὑτοῖς ᾠοτοκήσαντα πρῶτον
1This is why there is always a class of men and animals and plants. But since the male and female essences are the first principles of these, they will exist in the existing individuals for the sake of generation. Again, as the first efficient or moving cause, to which belong the definition and the form, is better and more 5divine in its nature than the material on which it works, it is better that the superior principle should be separated from the inferior. Therefore, wherever it is possible and so far as it is possible, the male is separated from the female. For the first principle of the movement, or efficient cause, whereby that which comes into being is male, is better and more divine than the material whereby it 10is female. The male, however, comes together and mingles with the female for the work of generation, because this is common to both.
A thing lives, then, in virtue of participating in the male and female principles, wherefore even plants have some kind of life; but the class of animals exists in virtue of sense-perception. The sexes are divided in nearly all of these that can move about, for the reasons 15already stated, and some of them, as said before, emit semen in copulation, others not. The reason of this is that the higher animals are more independent in their nature, so that they have greater size, and this cannot exist without vital heat; for the greater body requires more force to move it, and heat is a motive force. Therefore, taking a general view, we may say that sanguinea are of greater 20size than bloodless animals, and those which move about than those which remain fixed. And these are just the animals which emit semen on account of their heat and size.
So much for the cause of the existence of the two sexes. Some animals bring to perfection and produce into the world a creature like themselves, as all those which bring their young into the world alive; others produce something 25undeveloped which has not yet acquired its own form; in this latter division the sanguinea lay eggs, the bloodless animals either lay an egg or give birth to a scolex. The difference between egg and scolex is this: an egg is that from a part of which the young comes into being, the rest being nutriment for it; but the whole of a scolex is developed into the whole of the young animal. Of the vivipara, which 30bring into the world an animal like themselves, some are internally viviparous (as men, horses, cattle, and of marine animals dolphins and the other cetacea); others first lay eggs within themselves, and only after this are externally viviparous (as the cartilaginous fishes). Among the ovipara some produce the egg in a perfect condition (as birds and all oviparous quadrupeds and footless animals, e.g.
A thing lives, then, in virtue of participating in the male and female principles, wherefore even plants have some kind of life; but the class of animals exists in virtue of sense-perception. The sexes are divided in nearly all of these that can move about, for the reasons 15already stated, and some of them, as said before, emit semen in copulation, others not. The reason of this is that the higher animals are more independent in their nature, so that they have greater size, and this cannot exist without vital heat; for the greater body requires more force to move it, and heat is a motive force. Therefore, taking a general view, we may say that sanguinea are of greater 20size than bloodless animals, and those which move about than those which remain fixed. And these are just the animals which emit semen on account of their heat and size.
So much for the cause of the existence of the two sexes. Some animals bring to perfection and produce into the world a creature like themselves, as all those which bring their young into the world alive; others produce something 25undeveloped which has not yet acquired its own form; in this latter division the sanguinea lay eggs, the bloodless animals either lay an egg or give birth to a scolex. The difference between egg and scolex is this: an egg is that from a part of which the young comes into being, the rest being nutriment for it; but the whole of a scolex is developed into the whole of the young animal. Of the vivipara, which 30bring into the world an animal like themselves, some are internally viviparous (as men, horses, cattle, and of marine animals dolphins and the other cetacea); others first lay eggs within themselves, and only after this are externally viviparous (as the cartilaginous fishes). Among the ovipara some produce the egg in a perfect condition (as birds and all oviparous quadrupeds and footless animals, e.g.
732b
1 οὕτω ζῳοτοκεῖ θύραζε, οἷον τὰ σελάχη καλούμενα. τῶν
δ' ᾠοτοκούντων τὰ μὲν τέλειον προΐεται τὸ ᾠόν, οἷον ὄρνιθες
καὶ ὅσα τετράποδα ᾠοτοκεῖ καὶ ὅσα ἄποδα οἷον σαῦροι
καὶ χελῶναι καὶ τῶν ὄφεων τὸ πλεῖστον γένος (τὰ γὰρ τούτων
5 ᾠὰ ὅταν ἐξέλθῃ οὐκέτι λαμβάνει αὔξησιν), —τὰ δ' ἀτελῆ,
οἷον οἵ τ' ἰχθύες καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα καὶ τὰ μαλάκια
καλούμενα· τούτων γὰρ τὰ ᾠὰ αὐξάνεται ἐξελθόντα.
Πάντα δὲ τὰ ζῳοτοκοῦντα ἢ ᾠοτοκοῦντα ἔναιμά ἐστιν, καὶ τὰ
ἔναιμα ἢ ζῳοτοκεῖ ἢ ᾠοτοκεῖ, ὅσα μὴ ὅλως ἄγονά ἐστιν.
10 τῶν δ' ἀναίμων τὰ ἔντομα σκωληκοτοκεῖ, ὅσα ἢ ἐκ συνδυασμοῦ
γίγνεται ἢ αὐτὰ συνδυάζεται. ἔστι γὰρ ἔνια τοιαῦτα
τῶν ἐντόμων ἃ γίγνεται μὲν αὐτόματα, ἔστι δὲ θήλεα καὶ
ἄρρενα, καὶ ἐκ συνδυαζομένων γίγνεταί τι αὐτῶν, ἀτελὲς
μέντοι τὸ γιγνόμενον· ἡ δ' αἰτία εἴρηται πρότερον ἐν ἑτέροις.
15 Συμβαίνει δὲ πολλὴ ἐπάλλαξις τοῖς γένεσιν· οὔτε γὰρ τὰ
δίποδα πάντα ζῳοτοκεῖ (οἱ γὰρ ὄρνιθες ᾠοτοκοῦσιν) οὔτ' ᾠοτοκεῖ
πάντα (ὁ γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ζῳοτοκεῖ) οὔτε τὰ τετράποδα
πάντα ᾠοτοκεῖ (ἵππος γὰρ καὶ βοῦς καὶ ἄλλα μυρία ζῳοτοκεῖ)
οὔτε ζῳοτοκεῖ πάντα (σαῦροι γὰρ καὶ κροκόδειλοι
20 καὶ ἄλλα πολλὰ ᾠοτοκοῦσιν). οὐδ' ἐν τῷ πόδας ἔχειν ἢ μὴ
ἔχειν διαφέρει· καὶ γὰρ ἄποδα ζῳοτοκεῖ οἷον οἱ ἔχεις καὶ
τὰ σελάχη, τὰ δ' ᾠοτοκεῖ οἷον τὸ τῶν ἰχθύων γένος καὶ τὰ
τῶν ἄλλων ὄφεων· καὶ τῶν πόδας ἐχόντων καὶ ᾠοτοκεῖ
πολλὰ καὶ ζῳοτοκεῖ οἷον τὰ εἰρημένα τετράποδα. καὶ ἐν
25 αὑτοῖς δὲ ζῳοτοκεῖ καὶ δίποδα οἷον ἄνθρωπος, καὶ
ἄποδα οἷον φάλλαινα καὶ δελφίς. ταύτῃ μὲν οὖν οὐκ ἔστι
διελεῖν, οὐδ' αἴτιον τῆς διαφορᾶς ταύτης οὐθὲν τῶν πορευτικῶν
ὀργάνων, ἀλλὰ ζῳοτοκεῖ μὲν τὰ τελεώτερα τὴν φύσιν
τῶν ζῴων καὶ μετέχοντα καθαρωτέρας ἀρχῆς· οὐθὲν γὰρ
30 ζῳοτοκεῖ ἐν αὑτῷ μὴ δεχόμενον τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ ἀναπνέον.
τελεώτερα δὲ τὰ θερμότερα τὴν φύσιν καὶ ὑγρότερα καὶ
μὴ γεώδη. τῆς δὲ θερμότητος τῆς φυσικῆς ὅρος ὁ πνεύμων
ὅσων ἔναιμός ἐστιν· ὅλως μὲν γὰρ τὰ ἔχοντα πνεύμονα
τῶν μὴ ἐχόντων θερμότερα, τούτων δ' αὐτῶν τὰ μὴ
35 σομφὸν ἔχοντα μηδὲ στιφρὸν μηδ' ὀλίγαιμον ἀλλ' ἔναιμον
1lizards and tortoises and most snakes; for the eggs of all these do not increase when once laid). The eggs of others are imperfect; such are those of fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods, for their eggs increase after being produced.
All the vivipara are sanguineous, and the sanguinea are either viviparous 5or oviparous, except those which are altogether infertile. Among bloodless animals the insects produce a scolex, alike those that are generated by copulation and those that copulate themselves though not so generated. For there are some insects of this sort, which though they come into being by spontaneous generation are yet male and female; from their union something is produced, 10only it is imperfect; the reason of this has been previously stated.
These classes admit of much cross-division. Not all bipeds are viviparous (for birds are oviparous), nor are they all oviparous (for man is viviparous), nor are all quadrupeds oviparous (for horses, cattle, and countless others are viviparous), nor are they all viviparous (for lizards, crocodiles, and many others lay 15eggs). Nor does the presence or absence of feet make the difference between them, for not only are some footless animals viviparous, as vipers and the cartilaginous fishes, while others are oviparous, as the other fishes and serpents, but also among those which have feet many are oviparous and many viviparous, as the quadrupeds above mentioned. And some which have feet, as man, and 20some which have not, as the whale and dolphin, are internally viviparous. By this character then it is not possible to divide them, nor is any of the locomotive organs the cause of this difference, but it is those animals which are more perfect in their nature and participate in a purer element which are viviparous, for nothing is internally viviparous unless it receive and breathe 25out air. But the more perfect are those which are hotter in their nature and have more moisture and are not earthy in their composition. And the measure of natural heat is the lung when it has blood in it, for generally those animals which have a lung are hotter than those which have not, and in the former class again those whose lung is not spongy nor solid nor containing only a 30little blood, but soft and full of blood. And as the animal is perfect but the egg and the scolex are imperfect, so the perfect is naturally produced from the more perfect. If animals are hotter as shown by their possessing a lung but drier in their nature, or are colder but have more moisture, then they either lay a perfect egg or are viviparous after laying an egg within themselves.
All the vivipara are sanguineous, and the sanguinea are either viviparous 5or oviparous, except those which are altogether infertile. Among bloodless animals the insects produce a scolex, alike those that are generated by copulation and those that copulate themselves though not so generated. For there are some insects of this sort, which though they come into being by spontaneous generation are yet male and female; from their union something is produced, 10only it is imperfect; the reason of this has been previously stated.
These classes admit of much cross-division. Not all bipeds are viviparous (for birds are oviparous), nor are they all oviparous (for man is viviparous), nor are all quadrupeds oviparous (for horses, cattle, and countless others are viviparous), nor are they all viviparous (for lizards, crocodiles, and many others lay 15eggs). Nor does the presence or absence of feet make the difference between them, for not only are some footless animals viviparous, as vipers and the cartilaginous fishes, while others are oviparous, as the other fishes and serpents, but also among those which have feet many are oviparous and many viviparous, as the quadrupeds above mentioned. And some which have feet, as man, and 20some which have not, as the whale and dolphin, are internally viviparous. By this character then it is not possible to divide them, nor is any of the locomotive organs the cause of this difference, but it is those animals which are more perfect in their nature and participate in a purer element which are viviparous, for nothing is internally viviparous unless it receive and breathe 25out air. But the more perfect are those which are hotter in their nature and have more moisture and are not earthy in their composition. And the measure of natural heat is the lung when it has blood in it, for generally those animals which have a lung are hotter than those which have not, and in the former class again those whose lung is not spongy nor solid nor containing only a 30little blood, but soft and full of blood. And as the animal is perfect but the egg and the scolex are imperfect, so the perfect is naturally produced from the more perfect. If animals are hotter as shown by their possessing a lung but drier in their nature, or are colder but have more moisture, then they either lay a perfect egg or are viviparous after laying an egg within themselves.
733a
1 καὶ μαλακόν. ὥσπερ δὲ τὸ μὲν ζῷον τέλειον τὸ δ' ᾠὸν
καὶ ὁ σκώληξ ἀτελές, οὕτω τὸ τέλειον ἐκ τοῦ τελείου
γίγνεσθαι πέφυκεν. τὰ δὲ θερμότερα μὲν διὰ τὸ ἔχειν πνεύμονα
ξηρότερα δὲ τὴν φύσιν, ἢ τὰ ψυχρότερα μὲν ὑγρότερα
5 δέ—τὰ μὲν ᾠοτοκεῖ τέλειον ᾠόν, τὰ δ' ᾠοτοκήσαντα
ζῳοτοκεῖ ἐν αὑτοῖς. οἱ μὲν γὰρ ὄρνιθες καὶ τὰ φολιδωτὰ
διὰ μὲν θερμότητα τελεσιουργοῦσι, διὰ δὲ ξηρότητα ᾠοτοκοῦσι,
—τὰ δὲ σελάχη θερμὰ μὲν ἧττον τούτων ὑγρὰ δὲ
μᾶλλον ὥστε μετέχει ἀμφοτέρων· καὶ γὰρ ᾠοτοκεῖ καὶ
10 ζῳοτοκεῖ ἐν αὑτοῖς—ᾠοτοκεῖ μὲν ὅτι ψυχρά, ζῳοτοκεῖ δ'
ὅτι ὑγρά· ζωτικὸν γὰρ τὸ ὑγρόν, πορρωτάτω δὲ τοῦ ἐμψύχου
τὸ ξηρόν. ἐπεὶ δ' οὔτε πτερωτὰ οὔτε φολιδωτὰ οὔτε
λεπιδωτά ἐστιν—ἃ σημεῖα ξηρᾶς μᾶλλον καὶ γεώδους φύσεως—μαλακὸν
τὸ ᾠὸν γεννῶσιν· ὥσπερ γὰρ οὐδ' ἐν αὐτῷ
15 οὐδ' ἐν τῷ ᾠῷ ἐπιπολάζει τὸ γεηρόν. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο εἰς αὑτὰ
ᾠοτοκεῖ· θύραζε γὰρ ἂν ἰὸν διεφθείρετο τὸ ᾠὸν οὐκ ἔχον
προβολήν. Τὰ δὲ καὶ ψυχρὰ καὶ ξηρὰ μᾶλλον ᾠοτοκεῖ μέν,
ἀτελὲς δὲ τὸ ᾠόν, καὶ σκληρόδερμον δὲ διὰ τὸ γεηρὰ εἶναι
καὶ ἀτελὲς προΐεσθαι ἵνα σώζηται φυλακὴν ἔχον τὸ
20 ὀστρακῶδες. οἱ μὲν οὖν ἰχθύες λεπιδωτοὶ ὄντες καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα
γεηρὰ ὄντα σκληρόδερμα τὰ ᾠὰ γεννᾷ. τὰ δὲ
μαλάκια ὥσπερ αὐτὰ γλίσχρα τὴν τοῦ σώματός ἐστι φύσιν
οὕτω σώζει ἀτελῆ προϊέμενα τὰ ᾠά· προΐεται γὰρ
γλισχρότητα περὶ τὸ κύημα πολλήν. Τὰ δ' ἔντομα πάντα
25 σκωληκοτοκεῖ. ἔστι δ' ἅπαντα ἄναιμα τὰ ἔντομα, διὸ καὶ τὰ
σκωληκοτοκοῦντα θύραζε. τὰ δ' ἄναιμα οὐ πάντα σκωληκοτοκεῖ
ἅπλως· ἐπαλλάττουσι γὰρ ἀλλήλοις τά τ' ἔντομα [καὶ] τὰ σκωληκοτοκοῦντα
καὶ τὰ ἀτελῆ τίκτοντα τὰ ᾠά, οἷον οἵ τ' ἰχθύες οἱ λεπιδωτοὶ
καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα καὶ τὰ μαλάκια. τούτων μὲν
30 γὰρ τὰ ᾠὰ σκωληκώδη ἐστίν (αὔξησιν γὰρ λαμβάνει θύραζε),
ἐκείνων δ' οἱ σκώληκες γίγνονται προϊόντες ᾠοειδεῖς·
ὃν δὲ τρόπον ἐν τοῖς ὕστερον διοριοῦμεν. Δεῖ δὲ νοῆσαι ὡς
εὖ καὶ ἐφεξῆς τὴν γένεσιν ἀποδίδωσιν ἡ φύσις. τὰ μὲν γὰρ
1For birds and scaly reptiles because of their heat produce a perfect egg, but because of their dryness it is only an egg; the cartilaginous fishes have less heat than these but more moisture, so that they are intermediate, for they are both oviparous and viviparous within themselves, the former because they are cold, the latter 5because of their moisture; for moisture is vivifying, whereas dryness is furthest removed from what has life. Since they have neither feathers nor scales such as either reptiles or other fishes have, all which are signs rather of a dry and earthy nature, the egg they produce is soft; for the earthy matter does not come to the surface in their eggs any more than in themselves. This is why they lay eggs in 10themselves, for if the egg were laid externally it would be destroyed, having no protection.
Animals that are cold and rather dry than moist also lay eggs, but the egg is imperfect; at the same time, because they are of an earthy nature and the egg they produce is imperfect, therefore it has a hard integument that it may be preserved by the protection of the shell-like covering. Hence fishes, because they are 15scaly, and crustacea, because they are of an earthy nature, lay eggs with a hard integument.
The cephalopods, having themselves bodies of a sticky nature, preserve in the same way the imperfect eggs they lay, for they deposit a quantity of sticky material about the embryo. All insects produce a scolex. Now all the insects are bloodless, wherefore all creatures that produce a scolex from themselves are so. But we 20cannot say simply that all bloodless animals produce a scolex, for the classes overlap one another, (1) the insects, (2) the animals that produce a scolex, (3) those that lay their egg imperfect, as the scaly fishes, the crustacea, and the cephalopoda. I say that these form a gradation, for the eggs of these latter resemble a scolex, in that they increase after oviposition, and the scolex of insects again as 25it develops resembles an egg; how so we shall explain later.
We must observe how rightly Nature orders generation in regular gradation. The more perfect and hotter animals produce their young perfect in respect of quality (in respect of quantity this is so with no animal, for the young always increase in size after birth), and these generate living animals within themselves from the first. The second class 30do not generate perfect animals within themselves from the first (for they are only viviparous after first laying eggs), but still they are externally viviparous. The third class do not produce a perfect animal, but an egg, and this egg is perfect.
Animals that are cold and rather dry than moist also lay eggs, but the egg is imperfect; at the same time, because they are of an earthy nature and the egg they produce is imperfect, therefore it has a hard integument that it may be preserved by the protection of the shell-like covering. Hence fishes, because they are 15scaly, and crustacea, because they are of an earthy nature, lay eggs with a hard integument.
The cephalopods, having themselves bodies of a sticky nature, preserve in the same way the imperfect eggs they lay, for they deposit a quantity of sticky material about the embryo. All insects produce a scolex. Now all the insects are bloodless, wherefore all creatures that produce a scolex from themselves are so. But we 20cannot say simply that all bloodless animals produce a scolex, for the classes overlap one another, (1) the insects, (2) the animals that produce a scolex, (3) those that lay their egg imperfect, as the scaly fishes, the crustacea, and the cephalopoda. I say that these form a gradation, for the eggs of these latter resemble a scolex, in that they increase after oviposition, and the scolex of insects again as 25it develops resembles an egg; how so we shall explain later.
We must observe how rightly Nature orders generation in regular gradation. The more perfect and hotter animals produce their young perfect in respect of quality (in respect of quantity this is so with no animal, for the young always increase in size after birth), and these generate living animals within themselves from the first. The second class 30do not generate perfect animals within themselves from the first (for they are only viviparous after first laying eggs), but still they are externally viviparous. The third class do not produce a perfect animal, but an egg, and this egg is perfect.
733b
1 τελεώτερα καὶ θερμότερα τῶν ζῴων τέλειον ἀποδίδωσι τὸ
τέκνον κατὰ τὸ ποιόν (κατὰ δὲ τὸ ποσὸν ὅλως οὐθὲν τῶν
ζῴων· πάντα γὰρ γενόμενα λαμβάνει αὔξησιν), καὶ γεννᾷ
δὴ ταῦτα ζῷα ἐν αὑτοῖς εὐθύς. τὰ δὲ δεύτερα ἐν αὑτοῖς
5 μὲν οὐ γεννᾷ τέλεια εὐθύς (ζῳοτοκεῖ γὰρ ᾠοτοκήσαντα πρῶτον),
θύραζε δὲ ζῳοτοκεῖ. τὰ δὲ ζῷον μὲν οὐ τέλειον γεννᾷ,
ᾠὸν δὲ γεννᾷ καὶ τοῦτο τέλειον τὸ ᾠόν. τὰ δ' ἔτι τούτων
ψυχροτέραν ἔχοντα τὴν φύσιν ᾠὸν μὲν γεννᾷ, οὐ τέλειον δὲ
ᾠὸν ἀλλ' ἔξω τελειοῦται καθάπερ τὸ τῶν λεπιδωτῶν ἰχθύων
10 γένος καὶ τὰ μαλακόστρακα καὶ τὰ μαλάκια. τὸ δὲ πέμπτον
γένος καὶ ψυχρότατον οὐδ' ᾠοτοκεῖ ἐξ αὑτοῦ ἀλλὰ
καὶ τὸ τοιοῦτον ἔξω συμβαίνει πάθος αὐτῷ ὥσπερ εἴρηται·
τὰ γὰρ ἔντομα σκωληκοτοκεῖ τὸ πρῶτον, προελθὼν δ' ᾠώδης
γίγνεται ὁ σκώληξ (ἡ γὰρ χρυσαλλὶς καλουμένη δύναμιν
15 ᾠοῦ ἔχει), εἶτ' ἐκ τούτου γίγνεται ζῷον ἐν τῇ τρίτῃ μεταβολῇ
λαβὸν τὸ τῆς γενέσεως τέλος. Τὰ μὲν οὖν οὐ γίγνεται
τῶν ζῴων ἀπὸ σπέρματος, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη καὶ πρότερον,
—τὰ δ' ἔναιμα πάντα γίγνεται ἀπὸ σπέρματος ὅσα ἐκ
συνδυασμοῦ γίγνεται, προϊεμένου τοῦ ἄρρενος εἰς τὸ θῆλυ γονὴν
20 ἧς εἰσελθούσης τὰ ζῷα συνίσταται καὶ λαμβάνει τὴν
οἰκείαν μορφήν, τὰ μὲν ἐν αὐτοῖς τοῖς ζῴοις ὅσα ζῳοτοκεῖ
τὰ δ' ἐν ᾠοῖς * * * καὶ σπέρμασι καὶ τοιαύταις ἄλλαις
ἀποκρίσεσιν. Περὶ ὧν ἐστιν ἀπορία πλείων, πῶς ποτε γίγνεται
ἐκ τοῦ σπέρματος τὸ φυτὸν ἢ τῶν ζῴων ὁτιοῦν. ἀνάγκη
25 γὰρ τὸ γιγνόμενον καὶ ἔκ τινος γίγνεσθαι καὶ ὑπό τινος καί
τι. ἐξ οὗ μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἡ ὕλη ἣν ἔνια μὲν ζῷα ἔχει πρώτην
ἐν αὑτοῖς λαβόντα ἐκ τοῦ θήλεος, οἷον ὅσα μὴ ζῳοτοκεῖται
ἀλλὰ σκωληκοτοκεῖται ἢ ᾠοτοκεῖται, τὰ δὲ μέχρι
πόρρω ἐκ τοῦ θήλεος λαμβάνει διὰ τὸ θηλάζειν, ὥσπερ
30 ὅσα ζῳοτοκεῖται μὴ μόνον ἐκτὸς ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐντός. ἐξ
οὗ μὲν οὖν γίγνεται ἡ τοιαύτη ὕλη ἐστίν. ζητεῖται δὲ νῦν οὐκ
ἐξ οὗ ἀλλ' ὑφ' οὗ γίγνεται τὰ μόρια· ἤτοι γὰρ τῶν ἔξωθέν τι
ποιεῖ ἢ ἐνυπάρχον τι ἐν τῇ γονῇ καὶ σπέρματι, καὶ τοῦτ'
1Those whose nature is still colder than these produce an egg, but an imperfect one, which is perfected outside the body, as the class of scaly fishes, the crustacea, and the cephalopods. The fifth and coldest class does not even lay an egg from itself; but so far as the young ever attain to this condition at all, it is outside 5the body of the parent, as has been said already. For insects produce a scolex first; the scolex after developing becomes egg-like (for the so-called chrysalis or pupa is equivalent to an egg); then from this it is that a perfect animal comes into being, reaching the end of its development in the second change.
Some animals then, as said before, do not come into being from semen, but all the sanguinea do so which 10are generated by copulation, the male emitting semen into the female when this has entered into her the young are formed and assume their peculiar character, some within the animals themselves when they are viviparous, others in eggs.
There is a considerable difficulty in understanding how the plant is formed out of the seed or any animal out of the semen. Everything that comes into being or is made must (1) 15be made out of something, (2) be made by the agency of something, and (3) must become something. Now that out of which it is made is the material; this some animals have in its first form within themselves, taking it from the female parent, as all those which are not born alive but produced as a scolex or an egg; others receive it from the mother for a long time by sucking, as the young of all those which are 20not only externally but also internally viviparous. Such, then, is the material out of which things come into being, but we now are inquiring not out of what the parts of an animal are made, but by what agency. Either it is something external which makes them, or else something existing in the seminal fluid and the semen; and this must either be soul or a part of soul, or something containing soul.
Now it would 25appear irrational to suppose that any of either the internal organs or the other parts is made by something external, since one thing cannot set up a motion in another without touching it, nor can a thing be affected in any way by another if it does not set up a motion in it. Something then of the sort we require exists in the embryo itself, being either a part of it or separate from it. To suppose that it 30should be something else separate from it is irrational. For after the animal has been produced does this something perish or does it remain in it? But nothing of the kind appears to be in it, nothing which is not a part of the whole plant or animal.
Some animals then, as said before, do not come into being from semen, but all the sanguinea do so which 10are generated by copulation, the male emitting semen into the female when this has entered into her the young are formed and assume their peculiar character, some within the animals themselves when they are viviparous, others in eggs.
There is a considerable difficulty in understanding how the plant is formed out of the seed or any animal out of the semen. Everything that comes into being or is made must (1) 15be made out of something, (2) be made by the agency of something, and (3) must become something. Now that out of which it is made is the material; this some animals have in its first form within themselves, taking it from the female parent, as all those which are not born alive but produced as a scolex or an egg; others receive it from the mother for a long time by sucking, as the young of all those which are 20not only externally but also internally viviparous. Such, then, is the material out of which things come into being, but we now are inquiring not out of what the parts of an animal are made, but by what agency. Either it is something external which makes them, or else something existing in the seminal fluid and the semen; and this must either be soul or a part of soul, or something containing soul.
Now it would 25appear irrational to suppose that any of either the internal organs or the other parts is made by something external, since one thing cannot set up a motion in another without touching it, nor can a thing be affected in any way by another if it does not set up a motion in it. Something then of the sort we require exists in the embryo itself, being either a part of it or separate from it. To suppose that it 30should be something else separate from it is irrational. For after the animal has been produced does this something perish or does it remain in it? But nothing of the kind appears to be in it, nothing which is not a part of the whole plant or animal.
734a
1 ἔστιν ἢ μέρος τι ψυχῆς ἢ ψυχή, ἢ ἔχον ἂν εἴη ψυχήν.
τὸ μὲν οὖν τῶν ἔξωθέν τι ποιεῖν ἕκαστον ἢ τῶν σπλάγχνων ἢ
τῶν ἄλλων μερῶν ἄλογον ἂν δόξειεν· κινεῖν τε γὰρ μὴ
ἁπτόμενον ἀδύνατον καὶ μὴ κινοῦντος πάσχειν τι ὑπὸ τούτου.
5 ἐν αὐτῷ ἄρα τῷ κυήματι ἐνυπάρχει τι ἤδη, ἢ αὐτοῦ μόριον
ἢ κεχωρισμένον. τὸ μὲν οὖν ἄλλο τι εἶναι κεχωρισμένον
ἄλογον· γεννηθέντος γὰρ τοῦ ζῴου πότερον φθείρεται ἢ
ἐμμένει; ἀλλ' οὐδὲν τοιοῦτον φαίνεται ἐνὸν ὃ οὐ μόριον τοῦ ὅλου
ἢ φυτοῦ ἢ ζῴου ἐστίν. ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ τὸ φθείρεσθαί γε ποιῆσαν
10 εἴτε πάντα τὰ μέρη εἴτε τι ἄτοπον· τὰ λοιπὰ γὰρ
τί ποιήσει; εἰ γὰρ ἐκεῖνο μὲν τὴν καρδίαν, εἶτ' ἐφθάρη,
αὕτη δ' ἕτερον, τοῦ αὐτοῦ λόγου ἢ πάντα φθείρεσθαι ἢ πάντα
μένειν. σώζεται ἄρα· αὐτοῦ ἄρα μόριόν ἐστιν ὃ εὐθὺς
ἐνυπάρχει ἐν τῷ σπέρματι. εἰ δὲ δὴ μὴ ἔστι τῆς ψυχῆς
15 μηθὲν ὃ μὴ τοῦ σώματός ἐστιν ἔν τινι μορίῳ, καὶ ἔμψυχον
ἄν τι εἴη μόριον εὐθύς. Τὰ οὖν ἄλλα πῶς; ἢ γάρ τοι ἅμα
πάντα γίγνεται τὰ μόρια οἷον καρδία πνεύμων ἧπαρ
ὀφθαλμὸς καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἕκαστον, ἢ ἐφεξῆς ὥσπερ ἐν
τοῖς καλουμένοις Ὀρφέως ἔπεσιν· ἐκεῖ γὰρ ὁμοίως φησὶ
20 γίγνεσθαι τὸ ζῷον τῇ τοῦ δικτύου πλοκῇ. ὅτι μὲν οὖν οὐχ ἅμα
καὶ τῇ αἰσθήσει ἐστὶ φανερόν· τὰ μὲν γὰρ φαίνεται
ἐνόντα ἤδη τῶν μορίων τὰ δ' οὔ. ὅτι δ' οὐ διὰ μικρότητα οὐ
φαίνεται δῆλον· μείζων γὰρ τὸ μέγεθος ὢν ὁ πνεύμων τῆς
καρδίας ὕστερον φαίνεται τῆς καρδίας ἐν τῇ ἐξ ἀρχῆς γενέσει.
25 ἐπεὶ δὲ τὸ μὲν πρότερον τὸ δ' ὕστερον, πότερον θάτερον
ποιεῖ θάτερον καὶ ἔστι διὰ τὸ ἐχόμενον, ἢ μᾶλλον μετὰ
τόδε γίγνεται τόδε; λέγω δ' οἷον οὐχ ἡ καρδία γενομένη ποιεῖ
τὸ ἧπαρ, τοῦτο δ' ἕτερόν τι, ἀλλὰ τόδε μετὰ τόδε, ὥσπερ
μετὰ τὸ παῖς ἀνὴρ γίγνεται ἀλλ' οὐχ ὑπ' ἐκείνου. λόγος δὲ
30 τούτου ὅτι ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄντος τὸ δυνάμει ὂν γίγνεται ἐν
τοῖς φύσει ἢ τέχνῃ γιγνομένοις, ὥστε δέοι ἂν τὸ εἶδος καὶ
τὴν μορφὴν ἐν ἐκείνῳ εἶναι οἷον ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τὸ τοῦ ἥπατος.
καὶ ἄλλως δ' ἄτοπος καὶ πλασματίας ὁ λόγος. Ἀλλὰ μὴν
καὶ τὸ ἐν τῷ σπέρματι εὐθὺς ἐνυπάρχειν τι μόριον τοῦ ζῴου
35 ἢ φυτοῦ γεγενημένον—εἶτε δυνάμενον ποιεῖν τἆλλα εἴτε μή—
ἀδύνατον εἰ πᾶν ἐκ σπέρματος καὶ γονῆς γίγνεται. δῆλον
γὰρ ὅτι ὑπὸ τοῦ τὸ σπέρμα ποιήσαντος ἐγένετο, εἴπερ εὐθὺς
1Yet, on the other hand, it is absurd to say that it perishes after making either all the parts or only some of them. If it makes some of the parts and then perishes, what is to make the rest of them? Suppose this something makes the heart and then perishes, and the heart makes another organ, by the same argument either all 5the parts must perish or all must remain. Therefore it is preserved and does not perish. Therefore it is a part of the embryo itself which exists in the semen from the beginning; and if indeed there is no part of the soul which does not exist in some part of the body, it would also be a part containing soul in it from the beginning.
How, then, does it make the other parts? Either all the parts, as heart, 10lung, liver, eye, and all the rest, come into being together or in succession, as is said in the verse ascribed to Orpheus, for there he says that an animal comes into being in the same way as the knitting of a net. That the former is not the fact is plain even to the senses, for some of the parts are clearly visible as already existing in the embryo while others are not; that it is not because of their 15being too small that they are not visible is clear, for the lung is of greater size than the heart, and yet appears later than the heart in the original development. Since, then, one is earlier and another later, does the one make the other, and does the later part exist on account of the part which is next to it, or rather does the one come into being only after the other? I mean, for instance, that it is 20not the fact that the heart, having come into being first, then makes the liver, and the liver again another organ, but that the liver only comes into being after the heart, and not by the agency of the heart, as a man becomes a man after being a boy, not by his agency. An explanation of this is that, in all the productions of Nature or of art, what already exists potentially is brought into being only by 25what exists actually; therefore if one organ formed another the form and the character of the later organ would have to exist in the earlier, e.g. the form of the liver in the heart. And otherwise also the theory is strange and fictitious.
Yet again, if the whole animal or plant is formed from semen or seed, it is impossible that any part of it should exist ready made in the semen or seed, whether that part 30be able to make the other parts or no. For it is plain that, if it exists in it from the first, it was made by that which made the semen. But semen must be made first, and that is the function of the generating parent. So, then, it is not possible that any part should exist in it, and therefore it has not within itself that which makes the parts.
But neither can this agent be external, and yet it must 35needs be one or other of the two. We must try, then, to solve this difficulty, for perhaps some one of the statements made cannot be made without qualification, e.g.
How, then, does it make the other parts? Either all the parts, as heart, 10lung, liver, eye, and all the rest, come into being together or in succession, as is said in the verse ascribed to Orpheus, for there he says that an animal comes into being in the same way as the knitting of a net. That the former is not the fact is plain even to the senses, for some of the parts are clearly visible as already existing in the embryo while others are not; that it is not because of their 15being too small that they are not visible is clear, for the lung is of greater size than the heart, and yet appears later than the heart in the original development. Since, then, one is earlier and another later, does the one make the other, and does the later part exist on account of the part which is next to it, or rather does the one come into being only after the other? I mean, for instance, that it is 20not the fact that the heart, having come into being first, then makes the liver, and the liver again another organ, but that the liver only comes into being after the heart, and not by the agency of the heart, as a man becomes a man after being a boy, not by his agency. An explanation of this is that, in all the productions of Nature or of art, what already exists potentially is brought into being only by 25what exists actually; therefore if one organ formed another the form and the character of the later organ would have to exist in the earlier, e.g. the form of the liver in the heart. And otherwise also the theory is strange and fictitious.
Yet again, if the whole animal or plant is formed from semen or seed, it is impossible that any part of it should exist ready made in the semen or seed, whether that part 30be able to make the other parts or no. For it is plain that, if it exists in it from the first, it was made by that which made the semen. But semen must be made first, and that is the function of the generating parent. So, then, it is not possible that any part should exist in it, and therefore it has not within itself that which makes the parts.
But neither can this agent be external, and yet it must 35needs be one or other of the two. We must try, then, to solve this difficulty, for perhaps some one of the statements made cannot be made without qualification, e.g.
734b
1 ἐνυπάρχει. ἀλλὰ σπέρμα δεῖ γενέσθαι πρότερον, καὶ τοῦτ'
ἔργον τοῦ γεννῶντος· οὐθὲν ἄρα οἷόν τε μόριον ὑπάρχειν. οὐκ
ἄρα ἔχει τὸ ποιοῦν τὰ μόρια ἐν αὑτῷ. ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδ' ἔξω·
ἀνάγκη δὲ τούτων εἶναι θάτερον. Πειρατέον δὴ ταῦτα λύειν·
5 ἴσως γάρ τι τῶν εἰρημένων ἐστὶν οὐχ ἁπλοῦν, οἷον πῶς ποτε
ὑπὸ τοῦ ἔξω οὐκ ἐνδέχεται γίγνεσθαι. ἔστι μὲν γὰρ ὡς ἐνδέχεται,
ἔστι δ' ὡς οὔ. τὸ μὲν οὖν τὸ σπέρμα λέγειν ἢ ἀφ' οὗ τὸ
σπέρμα οὐθὲν διαφέρει ᾗ ἔχει τὴν κίνησιν ἐν ἑαυτῷ ἣν ἐκεῖνο
ἐκίνει. ἐνδέχεται δὲ τόδε μὲν τόδε κινῆσαι, τόδε δὲ τόδε,
10 καὶ εἶναι οἷον τὰ αὐτόματα τῶν θαυμάτων. ἔχοντα γάρ
πως ὑπάρχει δύναμιν τὰ μόρια ἠρεμοῦντα· ὧν τὸ πρῶτον
ὅταν τι κινήσῃ τῶν ἔξωθεν εὐθὺς τὸ ἐχόμενον γίγνεται ἐνεργείᾳ.
ὥσπερ οὖν ἐν τοῖς αὐτομάτοις τρόπον μέν τινα ἐκεῖνο
κινεῖ οὐχ ἁπτόμενον νῦν οὐθενός, ἁψάμενον μέντοι· ὁμοίως δὲ
15 καὶ ἀφ' οὗ τὸ σπέρμα ἢ τὸ ποιῆσαν τὸ σπέρμα, ἁψάμενον
μέν τινος, οὐχ ἁπτόμενον δ' ἔτι· τρόπον δέ τινα ἡ ἐνοῦσα κίνησις
ὥσπερ ἡ οἰκοδόμησις τὴν οἰκίαν. Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἔστι τι ὃ
ποιεῖ, οὐχ οὕτως δὲ ὡς τόδε τι οὐδ' ἐνυπάρχον ὡς τετελεσμένον
τὸ πρῶτον, δῆλον. Πῶς δέ ποτε ἕκαστον γίγνεται
20 ἐντεῦθεν δεῖ λαβεῖν, ἀρχὴν ποιησαμένους πρῶτον μὲν ὅτι
ὅσα φύσει γίγνεται ἢ τέχνῃ ὑπ' ἐνεργείᾳ ὄντος γίγνεται ἐκ
τοῦ δυνάμει τοιούτου. τὸ μὲν οὖν σπέρμα τοιοῦτον, καὶ ἔχει κίνησιν
καὶ ἀρχὴν τοιαύτην ὥστε παυομένης τῆς κινήσεως γίγνεσθαι
ἕκαστον τῶν μορίων καὶ ἔμψυχον. οὐ γάρ ἐστι πρόσωπον
25 μὴ ἔχον ψυχὴν οὐδὲ σάρξ, ἀλλὰ φθαρέντα ὁμωνύμως
λεχθήσεται τὸ μὲν εἶναι πρόσωπον τὸ δὲ σάρξ, ὥσπερ
κἂν εἰ ἐγίγνετο λίθινα ἢ ξύλινα. ἅμα δὲ τὰ ὁμοιομερῆ γίγνεται
καὶ τὰ ὀργανικά· καὶ ὥσπερ οὐδ' ἂν πέλεκυν οὐδ' ἄλλο
ὄργανον φήσαιμεν ἂν ποιῆσαι τὸ πῦρ μόνον οὕτως οὐδὲ πόδα
30 οὐδὲ χεῖρα. τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον οὐδὲ σάρκα· καὶ γὰρ ταύτης
ἔργον τί ἐστιν. σκληρὰ μὲν οὖν καὶ μαλακὰ καὶ γλίσχρα
καὶ κραῦρα καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα τοιαῦτα πάθη ὑπάρχει τοῖς ἐμψύχοις
μορίοις θερμότης καὶ ψυχρότης ποιήσειεν ἄν, τὸν δὲ λόγον
ᾧ ἤδη τὸ μὲν σὰρξ τὸ δ' ὀστοῦν οὐκέτι, ἀλλ' ἡ κίνησις ἡ
35 ἀπὸ τοῦ γεννήσαντος τοῦ ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄντος ὅ ἐστι δυνάμει ἐξ
οὗ γίγνεται, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν γιγνομένων κατὰ τέχνην·
σκληρὸν μὲν γὰρ καὶ μαλακὸν τὸν σίδηρον ποιεῖ τὸ θερμὸν
1the statement that the parts cannot be made by what is external to the semen. For if in a certain sense they cannot, yet in another sense they can. (Now it makes no difference whether we say ‘the semen’ or ‘that from which the semen comes’, in so far as the semen has in itself the movement initiated by the other.)
It is 5possible, then, that A should move B, and B move C; that, in fact, the case should be the same as with the automatic machines shown as curiosities. For the parts of such machines while at rest have a sort of potentiality of motion in them, and when any external force puts the first of them in motion, immediately the next is moved in actuality. As, then, in these automatic machines the external force moves 10the parts in a certain sense (not by touching any part at the moment, but by having touched one previously), in like manner also that from which the semen comes, or in other words that which made the semen, sets up the movement in the embryo and makes the parts of it by having first touched something though not continuing to touch it. In a way it is the innate motion that does this, as the act of building 15builds the house. Plainly, then, while there is something which makes the parts, this does not exist as a definite object, nor does it exist in the semen at the first as a complete part.
But how is each part formed? We must answer this by starting in the first instance from the principle that, in all products of Nature or art, a thing is made by something actually existing out of that which is potentially 20such as the finished product. Now the semen is of such a nature, and has in it such a principle of motion, that when the motion is ceasing each of the parts comes into being, and that as a part having life or soul. For there is no such thing as face or flesh without life or soul in it; it is only equivocally that they will be called face or flesh if the life has gone out of them, just as if they had 25been made of stone or wood. And the homogeneous parts and the organic come into being together. And just as we should not say that an axe or other instrument or organ was made by the fire alone, so neither shall we say that foot or hand were made by heat alone. The same applies also to flesh, for this too has a function. While, then, we may allow that hardness and softness, stickiness and brittleness, 30and whatever other qualities are found in the parts that have life and soul, may be caused by mere heat and cold, yet, when we come to the principle in virtue of which flesh is flesh and bone is bone, that is no longer so; what makes them is the movement set up by the male parent, who is in actuality what that out of which the offspring is made is in potentiality. This is what we find in the products of 35art; heat and cold may make the iron soft and hard, but what makes a sword is the movement of the tools employed, this movement containing the principle of the art.
It is 5possible, then, that A should move B, and B move C; that, in fact, the case should be the same as with the automatic machines shown as curiosities. For the parts of such machines while at rest have a sort of potentiality of motion in them, and when any external force puts the first of them in motion, immediately the next is moved in actuality. As, then, in these automatic machines the external force moves 10the parts in a certain sense (not by touching any part at the moment, but by having touched one previously), in like manner also that from which the semen comes, or in other words that which made the semen, sets up the movement in the embryo and makes the parts of it by having first touched something though not continuing to touch it. In a way it is the innate motion that does this, as the act of building 15builds the house. Plainly, then, while there is something which makes the parts, this does not exist as a definite object, nor does it exist in the semen at the first as a complete part.
But how is each part formed? We must answer this by starting in the first instance from the principle that, in all products of Nature or art, a thing is made by something actually existing out of that which is potentially 20such as the finished product. Now the semen is of such a nature, and has in it such a principle of motion, that when the motion is ceasing each of the parts comes into being, and that as a part having life or soul. For there is no such thing as face or flesh without life or soul in it; it is only equivocally that they will be called face or flesh if the life has gone out of them, just as if they had 25been made of stone or wood. And the homogeneous parts and the organic come into being together. And just as we should not say that an axe or other instrument or organ was made by the fire alone, so neither shall we say that foot or hand were made by heat alone. The same applies also to flesh, for this too has a function. While, then, we may allow that hardness and softness, stickiness and brittleness, 30and whatever other qualities are found in the parts that have life and soul, may be caused by mere heat and cold, yet, when we come to the principle in virtue of which flesh is flesh and bone is bone, that is no longer so; what makes them is the movement set up by the male parent, who is in actuality what that out of which the offspring is made is in potentiality. This is what we find in the products of 35art; heat and cold may make the iron soft and hard, but what makes a sword is the movement of the tools employed, this movement containing the principle of the art.
735a
1 καὶ τὸ ψυχρόν, ἀλλὰ ξίφος ἡ κίνησις ἡ τῶν ὀργάνων ἔχουσα
λόγον [τὸν] τῆς τέχνης. ἡ γὰρ τέχνη ἀρχὴ καὶ εἶδος τοῦ
γιγνομένου, ἀλλ' ἐν ἑτέρῳ· ἡ δὲ τῆς φύσεως κίνησις ἐν αὐτῷ
ἀφ' ἑτέρας οὖσα φύσεως τῆς ἐχούσης τὸ εἶδος ἐνεργείᾳ. Πότερον
5 δ' ἔχει ψυχὴν τὸ σπέρμα ἢ οὔ; ὁ αὐτὸς λόγος καὶ
περὶ τῶν μορίων· οὔτε γὰρ ψυχὴ ἐν ἄλλῳ οὐδεμία ἔσται
πλὴν ἐν ἐκείνῳ οὗ γ' ἐστίν, οὔτε μόριον ἔσται μὴ μετέχον ἀλλ'
ἢ ὁμωνύμως ὥσπερ τεθνεῶτος ὀφθαλμός. δῆλον οὖν ὅτι καὶ
ἔχει καὶ ἔστι δυνάμει. ἐγγυτέρω δὲ καὶ πορρωτέρω αὐτὸ
10 αὑτοῦ ἐνδέχεται εἶναι δυνάμει, ὥσπερ ὁ καθεύδων γεωμέτρης
τοῦ ἐγρηγορότος πορρωτέρω καὶ οὗτος τοῦ θεωροῦντος.
ταύτης μὲν οὖν οὐθὲν μόριον αἴτιον τῆς γενέσεως ἀλλὰ τὸ
πρῶτον κινῆσαν ἔξωθεν. οὐθὲν γὰρ αὐτὸ ἑαυτὸ γεννᾷ· ὅταν
δὲ γένηται αὔξει ἤδη αὐτὸ ἑαυτό. διόπερ πρῶτόν τι γίγνεται
15 καὶ οὐχ ἅμα πάντα. τοῦτο δὲ γίγνεσθαι ἀνάγκη πρῶτον
ὃ αὐξήσεως ἀρχὴν ἔχει· εἴτε γὰρ φυτὸν εἴτε ζῷον
ὁμοίως τοῦτο πᾶσιν ὑπάρχει τὸ θρεπτικόν. τοῦτο δ' ἔστι τὸ
γεννητικὸν ἑτέρου οἷον αὐτό· τοῦτο γὰρ παντὸς φύσει τελείου
ἔργον καὶ ζῴου καὶ φυτοῦ· ἀνάγκη δὲ διὰ τόδε ὅτι ὅταν
20 τι γένηται αὐξάνεσθαι ἀνάγκη. ἐγέννησε μὲν τοίνυν τὸ συνώνυμον
οἷον ἄνθρωπος ἄνθρωπον, αὔξεται δὲ δι' ἑαυτοῦ.
αὐτὸ ἄρα τι ὂν αὔξει· εἰ δὴ ἕν τι καὶ τοῦτο πρῶτον, τοῦτο
ἀνάγκη γίγνεσθαι πρῶτον. ὥστ' εἰ ἡ καρδία πρῶτον ἔν τισι
ζῴοις γίγνεται, ἐν δὲ τοῖς μὴ ἔχουσι καρδίαν τὸ ταύτῃ ἀνάλογον,
25 ἐκ ταύτης ἂν εἴη ἡ ἀρχὴ τοῖς ἔχουσι, τοῖς δ' ἄλλοις
ἐκ τοῦ ἀνάλογον.
Τί μὲν οὖν ἐστιν αἴτιον ὡς ἀρχὴ τῆς περὶ ἕκαστον γενέσεως,
κινοῦν πρῶτον καὶ δημιουργοῦν, εἴρηται πρὸς τὰ διαπορηθέντα
πρότερον.
1For the art is the starting-point and form of the product; only it exists in something else, whereas the movement of Nature exists in the product itself, issuing from another nature which has the form in actuality.
Has the semen soul, or not? The same argument applies here as in the question concerning the parts. 5As no part, if it participate not in soul, will be a part except in an equivocal sense (as the eye of a dead man is still called an ‘eye’), so no soul will exist in anything except that of which it is soul; it is plain therefore that semen both has soul, and is soul, potentially.
But a thing existing potentially may be nearer or further from its realization in actuality, as e.g. a mathematician 10when asleep is further from his realization in actuality as engaged in mathematics than when he is awake, and when awake again but not studying mathematics he is further removed than when he is so studying. Accordingly it is not any part that is the cause of the soul’s coming into being, but it is the first moving cause from outside. (For nothing generates itself, though when it has come 15into being it thenceforward increases itself.) Hence it is that only one part comes into being first and not all of them together. But that must first come into being which has a principle of increase (for this nutritive power exists in all alike, whether animals or plants, and this is the same as the power that enables an animal or plant to generate another like itself, that being the function 20of them all if naturally perfect). And this is necessary for the reason that whenever a living thing is produced it must grow. It is produced, then, by something else of the same name, as e.g. man is produced by man, but it is increased by means of itself. There is, then, something which increases it. If this is a single part, this must come into being first. Therefore if the heart is first 25made in some animals, and what is analogous to the heart in the others which have no heart, it is from this or its analogue that the first principle of movement would arise.
We have thus discussed the difficulties previously raised on the question what is the efficient cause of generation in each case, as the first moving and formative power.
Has the semen soul, or not? The same argument applies here as in the question concerning the parts. 5As no part, if it participate not in soul, will be a part except in an equivocal sense (as the eye of a dead man is still called an ‘eye’), so no soul will exist in anything except that of which it is soul; it is plain therefore that semen both has soul, and is soul, potentially.
But a thing existing potentially may be nearer or further from its realization in actuality, as e.g. a mathematician 10when asleep is further from his realization in actuality as engaged in mathematics than when he is awake, and when awake again but not studying mathematics he is further removed than when he is so studying. Accordingly it is not any part that is the cause of the soul’s coming into being, but it is the first moving cause from outside. (For nothing generates itself, though when it has come 15into being it thenceforward increases itself.) Hence it is that only one part comes into being first and not all of them together. But that must first come into being which has a principle of increase (for this nutritive power exists in all alike, whether animals or plants, and this is the same as the power that enables an animal or plant to generate another like itself, that being the function 20of them all if naturally perfect). And this is necessary for the reason that whenever a living thing is produced it must grow. It is produced, then, by something else of the same name, as e.g. man is produced by man, but it is increased by means of itself. There is, then, something which increases it. If this is a single part, this must come into being first. Therefore if the heart is first 25made in some animals, and what is analogous to the heart in the others which have no heart, it is from this or its analogue that the first principle of movement would arise.
We have thus discussed the difficulties previously raised on the question what is the efficient cause of generation in each case, as the first moving and formative power.
Book 2,Chapter 2 (735a29–736a23)
Περὶ δὲ τῆς τοῦ σπέρματος φύσεως ἀπορήσειεν
30 ἄν τις. τὸ γὰρ σπέρμα ἐξέρχεται μὲν ἐκ τοῦ ζῴου
παχὺ καὶ λευκόν, ψυχόμενον δὲ γίγνεται ὑγρὸν ὥσπερ ὕδωρ
καὶ τὸ χρῶμα ὕδατος. ἄτοπον δὴ ἂν δόξειεν· οὐ γὰρ παχύνεται
ὕδωρ θερμῷ, τὸ δ' ἔσωθεν ἐκ θερμοῦ ἐξέρχεται παχύ, ψυχόμενον
δὲ γίγνεται ὑγρόν. καίτοι πήγνυταί γε τὰ ὑδατώδη·
35 τὸ δὲ σπέρμα οὐ πήγνυται τιθέμενον ἐν τοῖς πάγοις ὑπαίθριον
ἀλλ' ὑγραίνεται ὡς ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐναντίου παχυνθέν.
ἀλλὰ μὴν οὐδ' ὑπὸ θερμοῦ παχύνεσθαι εὔλογον. ὅσα γὰρ
The next question to be mooted concerns the nature 30of semen. For whereas when it issues from the animal it is thick and white, yet on cooling it becomes liquid as water, and its colour is that of water. This would appear strange, for water is not thickened by heat; yet semen is thick when it issues from within the animal’s body which is hot, and becomes liquid on cooling. Again, watery fluids freeze, but semen, if exposed in frosts to the 35open air, does not freeze but liquefies, as if it was thickened by the opposite of cold. Yet it is unreasonable, again, to suppose that it is thickened by heat.
735b
1 γῆς πλεῖον ἔχει, ταῦτα συνίσταται καὶ παχύνεται ἑψόμενα
οἷον καὶ τὸ γάλα. ἔδει οὖν ψυχόμενον στερεοῦσθαι. νῦν δ'
οὐθὲν γίγνεται στερεὸν ἀλλὰ πᾶν ὥσπερ ὕδωρ. ἡ μὲν οὖν ἀπορία
αὕτη ἐστίν· εἰ μὲν γὰρ ὕδατος—τὸ ὕδωρ οὐ φαίνεται παχυνόμενον
5 ὑπὸ τοῦ θερμοῦ, τὸ δ' ἐξέρχεται παχὺ καὶ θερμὸν
καὶ ἐκ θερμοῦ τοῦ σώματος· εἰ δὲ γῆς ἢ μικτὸν γῆς καὶ
ὕδατος οὐκ ἔδει ὑγρὸν πᾶν γίγνεσθαι [καὶ ὕδωρ]. ἢ οὐ πάντα
τὰ συμβαίνοντα διῃρήκαμεν; οὐ γὰρ μόνον παχύνεται τὸ ἐξ
ὕδατος καὶ γεώδους συνιστάμενον ὑγρὸν ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ ἐξ
10 ὕδατος καὶ πνεύματος, οἷον καὶ ὁ ἀφρὸς γίγνεται παχύτερος
καὶ λευκός, καὶ ὅσῳ ἂν ἐλάττους καὶ ἀδηλότεραι αἱ
πομφόλυγες ὦσι τοσούτῳ καὶ λευκότερος καὶ στιφρότερος ὁ
ὄγκος φαίνεται. τὸ δ' αὐτὸ καὶ τὸ ἔλαιον πάσχει· παχύνεται
γὰρ τῷ πνεύματι μιγνύμενον· διὸ καὶ τὸ λευκαινόμενον
15 παχύτερον γίγνεται, τοῦ ἐνόντος ὑδατώδους ὑπὸ τοῦ θερμοῦ
διακρινομένου καὶ γιγνομένου πνεύματος. καὶ ἡ μολύβδαινα
μιγνυμένη ὕδατι καὶ ἐλαίῳ καὶ τριβομένη ἐξ ὀλίγου τε πολὺν
ὄγκον ποιεῖ καὶ ἐξ ὑγροῦ στιφρὸν καὶ ἐκ μέλανος λευκόν.
αἴτιον δ' ὅτι ἐγκαταμίγνυται πνεῦμα ὃ τόν τε ὄγκον
20 ποιεῖ καὶ τὴν λευκότητα διαφαίνει, ὥσπερ ἐν τῷ ἀφρῷ καὶ
τῇ χιόνι· καὶ γὰρ ἡ χιών ἐστιν ἀφρός. καὶ αὐτὸ τὸ ὕδωρ
ἐλαίῳ μιγνύμενον γίγνεται παχὺ καὶ λευκόν· καὶ γὰρ
ὑπὸ τῆς τρίψεως ἐγκατακλείεται πνεῦμα, καὶ αὐτὸ τὸ
ἔλαιον ἔχει πνεῦμα πολύ· ἔστι γὰρ οὔτε γῆς οὔτε ὕδατος
25 ἀλλὰ πνεύματος τὸ λιπαρόν. διὸ καὶ ἐπὶ τῷ ὕδατι ἐπιπολάζει·
ὁ γὰρ ἐν αὐτῷ ὢν ἀὴρ ὥσπερ ἐν ἀγγείῳ φέρει
ἄνω καὶ ἐπιπολάζει καὶ αἴτιος τῆς κουφότητός ἐστιν. καὶ ἐν
τοῖς ψύχεσι δὲ καὶ πάγοις παχύνεται τὸ ἔλαιον, πήγνυται
δ' οὔ· διὰ μὲν γὰρ θερμότητα οὐ πήγνυται (ὁ γὰρ ἀὴρ
30 θερμὸν καὶ ἄπηκτον), διὰ δὲ τὸ συνίστασθαι αὐτὸν καὶ πυκνοῦσθαι
[ὥσπερ] ὑπὸ τοῦ ψύχους παχύτερον γίγνεται τὸ ἔλαιον.
διὰ ταύτας τὰς αἰτίας καὶ τὸ σπέρμα ἔσωθεν μὲν ἐξέρχεται
στιφρὸν καὶ λευκόν, ὑπὸ τῆς ἐντὸς θερμότητος πνεῦμα
πολὺ ἔχον θερμόν, ἐξελθόντος δὲ ὅταν ἀποπνεύσῃ τὸ θερμὸν
35 καὶ ὁ ἀὴρ ψυχθῇ ὑγρὸν γίγνεται καὶ μέλαν· λείπεται
γὰρ τὸ ὕδωρ καὶ εἴ τι μικρὸν γεῶδες, ὥσπερ ἐν φλέγματι,
καὶ ἐν τῷ σπέρματι ξηραινομένῳ. Ἔστι μὲν οὖν τὸ σπέρμα
1For it is only substances having a predominance of earth in their composition that coagulate and thicken on boiling, e.g. milk. It ought then to solidify on cooling, but as a matter of fact it does not become solid in any part but the whole of it goes like 5water.
This then is the difficulty. If it is water, water evidently does not thicken through heat, whereas the semen is thick and both it and the body whence it issues are hot. If it is made of earth or a mixture of earth and water, it ought not to liquefy entirely and turn to water.
Perhaps, however, we have not discriminated all 10the possibilities. It is not only the liquids composed of water and earthy matter that thicken, but also those composed of water and air; foam, for instance, becomes thicker and white, and the smaller and less visible the bubbles in it, the whiter and firmer does the mass appear. The same thing happens also with oil; on mixing 15with air it thickens, wherefore that which is whitening becomes thicker, the watery part in it being separated off by the heat and turning to air. And if oxide of lead is mixed with water or even with oil, the mass increases greatly and changes from liquid and dark to firm and white, the reason being that air is mixed in 20with it which increases the mass and makes the white shine through, as in foam and snow (for snow is foam). And water itself on mingling with oil becomes thick and white, because air is entangled in it by the act of pounding them together, and oil itself has much air in it (for shininess is a property of air, not of earth or 25water). This too is why it floats on the surface of the water, for the air contained in it as in a vessel bears it up and makes it float, being the cause of its lightness. So too oil is thickened without freezing in cold weather and frosts; it does not freeze because of its heat (for the air is hot and will not freeze), but because 30the air is forced together and compressed, as . . ., by the cold, the oil becomes thicker. These are the reasons why semen is firm and white when it issues from within the animal; it has a quantity of hot air in it because of the internal heat; afterwards, when the heat has evaporated and the air has cooled, it turns liquid 35and dark; for the water, and any small quantity of earthy matter there may be, remain in semen as it dries, as they do in phlegm.
This then is the difficulty. If it is water, water evidently does not thicken through heat, whereas the semen is thick and both it and the body whence it issues are hot. If it is made of earth or a mixture of earth and water, it ought not to liquefy entirely and turn to water.
Perhaps, however, we have not discriminated all 10the possibilities. It is not only the liquids composed of water and earthy matter that thicken, but also those composed of water and air; foam, for instance, becomes thicker and white, and the smaller and less visible the bubbles in it, the whiter and firmer does the mass appear. The same thing happens also with oil; on mixing 15with air it thickens, wherefore that which is whitening becomes thicker, the watery part in it being separated off by the heat and turning to air. And if oxide of lead is mixed with water or even with oil, the mass increases greatly and changes from liquid and dark to firm and white, the reason being that air is mixed in 20with it which increases the mass and makes the white shine through, as in foam and snow (for snow is foam). And water itself on mingling with oil becomes thick and white, because air is entangled in it by the act of pounding them together, and oil itself has much air in it (for shininess is a property of air, not of earth or 25water). This too is why it floats on the surface of the water, for the air contained in it as in a vessel bears it up and makes it float, being the cause of its lightness. So too oil is thickened without freezing in cold weather and frosts; it does not freeze because of its heat (for the air is hot and will not freeze), but because 30the air is forced together and compressed, as . . ., by the cold, the oil becomes thicker. These are the reasons why semen is firm and white when it issues from within the animal; it has a quantity of hot air in it because of the internal heat; afterwards, when the heat has evaporated and the air has cooled, it turns liquid 35and dark; for the water, and any small quantity of earthy matter there may be, remain in semen as it dries, as they do in phlegm.
736a
1 κοινὸν πνεύματος καὶ ὕδατος, τὸ δὲ πνεῦμά ἐστι θερμὸς ἀήρ·
διὸ ὑγρὸν τὴν φύσιν ὅτι ἐξ ὕδατος. Κτησίας γὰρ ὁ Κνίδιος
ἃ περὶ τοῦ σπέρματος τῶν ἐλεφάντων εἴρηκε φανερός ἐστιν
ἐψευσμένος. φησὶ γὰρ οὕτω σκληρύνεσθαι ξηραινόμενον ὥστε
5 γίγνεσθαι ἠλέκτρῳ ὅμοιον. τοῦτο δ' οὐ γίγνεται· μᾶλλον μὲν
γὰρ ἕτερον ἑτέρου σπέρμα γεωδέστερον ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι, καὶ
μάλιστα τοιοῦτον ὅσοις πολὺ γεῶδες ὑπάρχει κατὰ τὸν
ὄγκον τοῦ σώματος, παχὺ δὲ καὶ λευκὸν διὰ τὸ μεμῖχθαι
πνεῦμα. καὶ γὰρ λευκόν ἐστι τὸ σπέρμα πάντων·
10 Ἡρόδοτος γὰρ οὐκ ἀληθῆ λέγει φάσκων μέλαιναν εἶναι
τὴν τῶν Αἰθιόπων γονήν, ὥσπερ ἀναγκαῖον ὂν τῶν τὴν χρόαν
μελάνων εἶναι πάντα μέλανα, καὶ ταῦθ' ὁρῶν καὶ τοὺς ὀδόντας
αὐτῶν ὄντας λευκούς. αἴτιον δὲ τῆς λευκότητος τοῦ
σπέρματος ὅτι ἐστὶν ἡ γονὴ ἀφρός, ὁ δ' ἀφρὸς λευκόν,
15 καὶ μάλιστα τὸ ἐξ ὀλιγίστων συγκείμενον μορίων καὶ οὕτω
μικρῶν ὥσπερ ἑκάστης ἀοράτου τῆς πομφόλυγος οὔσης, ὅπερ
συμβαίνει καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ ὕδατος καὶ τοῦ ἐλαίου μιγνυμένων
καὶ τριβομένων, καθάπερ ἐλέχθη πρότερον. Ἔοικε δὲ οὐδὲ
τοὺς ἀρχαίους λανθάνειν ἀφρώδης ἡ τοῦ σπέρματος οὖσα φύσις·
20 τὴν γοῦν κυρίαν θεὸν τῆς μίξεως ἀπὸ τῆς δυνάμεως
ταύτης προσηγόρευσαν.
Ἡ μὲν οὖν αἰτία τῆς λεχθείσης ἀπορίας εἴρηται, φανερὸν
δὲ ὅτι διὰ τοῦτ' οὐδὲ πήγνυται· ὁ γὰρ ἀὴρ ἄπηκτος.
1Semen, then, is a compound of spirit (pneuma) and water, and the former is hot air (aerh); hence semen is liquid in its nature because it is made of water. What Ctesias the Cnidian has asserted of the semen of elephants is manifestly untrue; he says that it hardens so much 5in drying that it becomes like amber. But this does not happen, though it is true that one semen must be more earthy than another, and especially so with animals that have much earthy matter in them because of the bulk of their bodies. And it is thick and white because it is mixed with spirit, for it is also an invariable rule that it 10is white, and Herodotus does not report the truth when he says that the semen of the Aethiopians is black, as if everything must needs be black in those who have a black skin, and that too when he saw their teeth were white. The reason of the whiteness of semen is that it is a foam, and foam is white, especially that which is composed of 15the smallest parts, small in the sense that each bubble is invisible, which is what happens when water and oil are mixed and shaken together, as said before. (Even the ancients seem to have noticed that semen is of the nature of foam; at least it was from this they named the goddess who presides over union.)
This then is the explanation of 20the problem proposed, and it is plain too that this is why semen does not freeze; for air will not freeze.
This then is the explanation of 20the problem proposed, and it is plain too that this is why semen does not freeze; for air will not freeze.
Book 2,Chapter 3 (736a24–737b7)
Τούτου δ' ἐχόμενόν ἐστιν ἀπορῆσαι καὶ εἰπεῖν, εἰ τῶν προϊεμένων
25 εἰς τὸ θῆλυ γονὴν μηθὲν μόριόν ἐστι τὸ εἰσελθὸν τοῦ
γιγνομένου κυήματος, ποῦ τρέπεται τὸ σωματῶδες αὐτοῦ, εἴπερ
ἐργάζεται τῇ δυνάμει τῇ ἐνούσῃ ἐν αὐτῷ. διορίσαι δὲ
δεῖ πότερον μεταλαμβάνει τὸ συνιστάμενον ἐν τῷ θήλει ἀπὸ
τοῦ εἰσελθόντος τι ἢ οὐθέν, καὶ περὶ ψυχῆς καθ' ἣν λέγεται
30 ζῷον (ζῷον δ' ἐστὶ κατὰ τὸ μόριον τῆς ψυχῆς τὸ αἰσθητικόν)
πότερον ἐνυπάρχει τῷ σπέρματι καὶ τῷ κυήματι ἢ
οὔ, καὶ πόθεν. οὔτε γὰρ ὡς ἄψυχον ἂν θείη τις τὸ κύημα
κατὰ πάντα τρόπον ἐστερημένον ζωῆς· οὐδὲν γὰρ ἧττον τά
τε σπέρματα καὶ τὰ κυήματα τῶν ζῴων ζῇ τῶν φυτῶν,
35 καὶ γόνιμα μέχρι τινός ἐστιν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν τὴν θρεπτικὴν
ἔχουσι ψυχὴν φανερόν (δι' ὅτι δὲ ταύτην πρῶτον ἀναγκαῖόν
ἐστι λαβεῖν ἐκ τῶν περὶ ψυχῆς διωρισμένων ἐν ἄλλοις
The next question to raise and to answer is this. If, in the case of those animals which emit semen into the female, that which enters makes no part of the resulting embryo, where is the material part of it diverted if (as we have 25seen) it acts by means of the power residing in it? It is not only necessary to decide whether what is forming in the female receives anything material, or not, from that which has entered her, but also concerning the soul in virtue of which an animal is so called (and this is in virtue of the sensitive part of the soul)— does this exist 30originally in the semen and in the unfertilized embryo or not, and if it does whence does it come? For nobody would put down the unfertilized embryo as soulless or in every sense bereft of life (since both the semen and the embryo of an animal have every bit as much life as a plant), and it is productive up to a certain point. That then 35they possess the nutritive soul is plain (and plain is it from the discussions elsewhere about soul why this soul must be acquired first).
736b
1 φανερόν), προϊόντα δὲ καὶ τὴν αἰσθητικὴν καθ' ἣν ζῷον * * *·
οὐ γὰρ ἅμα γίγνεται ζῷον καὶ ἄνθρωπος οὐδὲ ζῷον καὶ ἵππος,
ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων· ὕστατον γὰρ γίγνεται
τὸ τέλος, τὸ δ' ἴδιόν ἐστι τὸ ἑκάστου τῆς γενέσεως τέλος.
5 διὸ καὶ περὶ νοῦ, πότε καὶ πῶς μεταλαμβάνει καὶ
πόθεν τὰ μετέχοντα ταύτης τῆς ἀρχῆς, ἔχει τ' ἀπορίαν
πλείστην καὶ δεῖ προθυμεῖσθαι κατὰ δύναμιν λαβεῖν καὶ
καθ' ὅσον ἐνδέχεται. Τὴν μὲν οὖν θρεπτικὴν ψυχὴν τὰ σπέρματα
καὶ τὰ κυήματα τὰ μήπω χωριστὰ δῆλον ὅτι δυνάμει μὲν
10 ἔχοντα θετέον, ἐνεργείᾳ δ' οὐκ ἔχοντα πρὶν ἢ καθάπερ τὰ
χωριζόμενα τῶν κυημάτων ἕλκει τὴν τροφὴν καὶ ποιεῖ τὸ
τῆς τοιαύτης ψυχῆς ἔργον· πρῶτον μὲν γὰρ ἅπαντ' ἔοικε
ζῆν τὰ τοιαῦτα φυτοῦ βίον. ἑπομένως δὲ δῆλον ὅτι καὶ περὶ
τῆς αἰσθητικῆς λεκτέον ψυχῆς καὶ περὶ τῆς νοητικῆς· πάσας
15 γὰρ ἀναγκαῖον δυνάμει πρότερον ἔχειν ἢ ἐνεργείᾳ. ἀναγκαῖον
δὲ ἤτοι μὴ οὔσας πρότερον ἐγγίγνεσθαι πάσας ἢ πάσας
προϋπαρχούσας ἢ τὰς μὲν τὰς δὲ μή, καὶ ἐγγίγνεσθαι
ἢ ἐν τῇ ὕλῃ μὴ εἰσελθούσας ἐν τῷ τοῦ ἄρρενος σπέρματι ἢ
ἐνταῦθα μὲν ἐκεῖθεν ἐλθούσας, ἐν δὲ τῷ ἄρρενι ἢ θύραθεν
20 ἐγγιγνομένας ἁπάσας ἢ μηδεμίαν ἢ τὰς μὲν τὰς δὲ μή.
ὅτι μὲν τοίνυν οὐχ οἷόν τε πάσας προϋπάρχειν φανερόν
ἐστιν ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων· ὅσων γάρ ἐστιν ἀρχῶν ἡ ἐνέργεια σωματική,
δῆλον ὅτι ταύτας ἄνευ σώματος ἀδύνατον ὑπάρχειν,
οἷον βαδίζειν ἄνευ ποδῶν· ὥστε καὶ θύραθεν εἰσιέναι
25 ἀδύνατον· οὔτε γὰρ αὐτὰς καθ' αὑτὰς εἰσιέναι οἷόν τε ἀχωρίστους
οὔσας οὔτ' ἐν σώματι εἰσιέναι· τὸ γὰρ σπέρμα περίττωμα
μεταβαλλούσης τῆς τροφῆς ἐστιν. λείπεται δὴ τὸν
νοῦν μόνον θύραθεν ἐπεισιέναι καὶ θεῖον εἶναι μόνον· οὐθὲν γὰρ
αὐτοῦ τῇ ἐνεργείᾳ κοινωνεῖ <ἡ> σωματικὴ ἐνέργεια. Πάσης μὲν
30 οὖν ψυχῆς δύναμις ἑτέρου σώματος ἔοικε κεκοινωνηκέναι καὶ
θειοτέρου τῶν καλουμένων στοιχείων· ὡς δὲ διαφέρουσι τιμιότητι
αἱ ψυχαὶ καὶ ἀτιμίᾳ ἀλλήλων οὕτω καὶ ἡ τοιαύτη
διαφέρει φύσις. πάντων μὲν γὰρ ἐν τῷ σπέρματι ἐνυπάρχει
ὅπερ ποιεῖ γόνιμα εἶναι τὰ σπέρματα, τὸ καλούμενον
35 θερμόν. τοῦτο δ' οὐ πῦρ οὐδὲ τοιαύτη δύναμίς ἐστιν ἀλλὰ τὸ
ἐμπεριλαμβανόμενον ἐν τῷ σπέρματι καὶ ἐν τῷ ἀφρώδει
πνεῦμα καὶ ἡ ἐν τῷ πνεύματι φύσις, ἀνάλογον οὖσα τῷ
1As they develop they also acquire the sensitive soul in virtue of which an animal is an animal. For e.g. an animal does not become at the same time an animal and a man or a horse or any other particular animal. For the end is developed last, and the peculiar character of the species is the end of the generation in each 5individual. Hence arises a question of the greatest difficulty, which we must strive to solve to the best of our ability and as far as possible. When and how and whence is a share in reason acquired by those animals that participate in this principle? It is plain that the semen and the unfertilized embryo, while still separate from each other, must be assumed to have the nutritive soul potentially, 10but not actually, except that (like those unfertilized embryos that are separated from the mother) it absorbs nourishment and performs the function of the nutritive soul. For at first all such embryos seem to live the life of a plant. And it is clear that we must be guided by this in speaking of the sensitive and the rational soul. For all three kinds of soul, not only the nutritive, must 15be possessed potentially before they are possessed in actuality. And it is necessary either (1) that they should all come into being in the embryo without existing previously outside it, or (2) that they should all exist previously, or (3), that some should so exist and others not. Again, it is necessary that they should either (1) come into being in the material supplied by the female without 20entering with the semen of the male, or (2) come from the male and be imparted to the material in the female. If the latter, then either all of them, or none, or some must come into being in the male from outside.
Now that it is impossible for them all to preexist is clear from this consideration. Plainly those principles whose activity is bodily cannot exist without a body, e.g. walking cannot exist 25without feet. For the same reason also they cannot enter from outside. For neither is it possible for them to enter by themselves, being inseparable from a body, nor yet in a body, for the semen is only a secretion of the nutriment in process of change. It remains, then, for the reason alone so to enter and alone to be divine, for no bodily activity has any connexion with the activity of 30reason.
Now it is true that the faculty of all kinds of soul seems to have a connexion with a matter different from and more divine than the so-called elements; but as one soul differs from another in honour and dishonour, so differs also the nature of the corresponding matter. All have in their semen that which causes it to be productive; I mean what is called vital heat. This is not fire nor any such 35force, but it is the spiritus included in the semen and the foam-like, and the natural principle in the spiritus, being analogous to the element of the stars.
Now that it is impossible for them all to preexist is clear from this consideration. Plainly those principles whose activity is bodily cannot exist without a body, e.g. walking cannot exist 25without feet. For the same reason also they cannot enter from outside. For neither is it possible for them to enter by themselves, being inseparable from a body, nor yet in a body, for the semen is only a secretion of the nutriment in process of change. It remains, then, for the reason alone so to enter and alone to be divine, for no bodily activity has any connexion with the activity of 30reason.
Now it is true that the faculty of all kinds of soul seems to have a connexion with a matter different from and more divine than the so-called elements; but as one soul differs from another in honour and dishonour, so differs also the nature of the corresponding matter. All have in their semen that which causes it to be productive; I mean what is called vital heat. This is not fire nor any such 35force, but it is the spiritus included in the semen and the foam-like, and the natural principle in the spiritus, being analogous to the element of the stars.
737a
1 τῶν ἄστρων στοιχείῳ. διὸ πῦρ μὲν οὐθὲν γεννᾷ ζῷον, οὐδὲ
φαίνεται συνιστάμενον ἐν πυρουμένοις οὔτ' ἐν ὑγροῖς οὔτ' ἐν ξηροῖς
οὐθέν· ἡ δὲ τοῦ ἡλίου θερμότης καὶ ἡ τῶν ζῴων οὐ μόνον ἡ διὰ
τοῦ σπέρματος, ἀλλὰ κἄν τι περίττωμα τύχῃ τῆς φύσεως
5 ὂν ἕτερον, ὅμως ἔχει καὶ τοῦτο ζωτικὴν ἀρχήν. ὅτι μὲν οὖν
ἡ ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις θερμότης οὔτε πῦρ οὔτε ἀπὸ πυρὸς ἔχει τὴν
ἀρχὴν ἐκ τῶν τοιούτων ἐστὶ φανερόν. Τὸ δὲ τῆς γονῆς σῶμα
ἐν ᾧ συναπέρχεται †τὸ σπέρμα† τὸ τῆς ψυχικῆς ἀρχῆς,
τὸ μὲν χωριστὸν ὂν σώματος ὅσοις ἐμπεριλαμβάνεταί
10 τι θεῖον (τοιοῦτος δ' ἐστὶν ὁ καλούμενος νοῦς) τὸ δ' ἀχώριστον,
—τοῦτο τὸ σῶμα τῆς γονῆς διαλύεται καὶ πνευματοῦται
φύσιν ἔχον ὑγρὰν καὶ ὑδατώδη. διόπερ οὐ δεῖ ζητεῖν ἀεὶ
θύραζε αὐτὸ ἐξιέναι, οὐδὲ μόριον οὐθὲν εἶναι τῆς συστάσης
μορφῆς ὥσπερ οὐδὲ τὸν ὀπὸν τὸν τὸ γάλα συνιστάντα· καὶ
15 γὰρ οὗτος μεταβάλλει καὶ μόριον οὐθέν ἐστι τῶν συνισταμένων
ὄγκων. Περὶ μὲν οὖν ψυχῆς πῶς ἔχει τὰ κυήματα καὶ ἡ
γονὴ καὶ πῶς οὐκ ἔχει διώρισται· δυνάμει μὲν γὰρ ἔχει,
ἐνεργείᾳ δ' οὐκ ἔχει. Τοῦ δὲ σπέρματος ὄντος περιττώματος
καὶ κινουμένου κίνησιν τὴν αὐτὴν καθ' ἥνπερ τὸ σῶμα αὐξάνεται
20 μεριζομένης τῆς ἐσχάτης τροφῆς, ὅταν ἔλθῃ εἰς τὴν
ὑστέραν συνίστησι καὶ κινεῖ τὸ περίττωμα τὸ τοῦ θήλεος τὴν
αὐτὴν κίνησιν ἥνπερ αὐτὸ τυγχάνει κινούμενον κἀκεῖνο. καὶ
γὰρ ἐκεῖνο περίττωμα, καὶ πάντα τὰ μόρια ἔχει δυνάμει,
ἐνεργείᾳ δ' οὐθέν. καὶ γὰρ τὰ τοιαῦτ' ἔχει μόρια δυνάμει
25 ᾗ διαφέρει τὸ θῆλυ τοῦ ἄρρενος. ὥσπερ γὰρ καὶ ἐκ πεπηρωμένων
ὁτὲ μὲν γίγνεται πεπηρωμένα ὁτὲ δ' οὔ, οὕτω καὶ ἐκ
θήλεος ὁτὲ μὲν θῆλυ ὁτὲ δ' οὒ ἀλλ' ἄρρεν. τὸ γὰρ θῆλυ
ὥσπερ ἄρρεν ἐστὶ πεπηρωμένον καὶ τὰ καταμήνια σπέρμα,
οὐ καθαρὸν δέ· ἓν γὰρ οὐκ ἔχει μόνον· τὴν τῆς ψυχῆς ἀρχήν.
30 καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ὅσοις ὑπηνέμια γίγνεται τῶν ζῴων ἀμφοτέρων
ἔχει τὰ μέρη τὸ συνιστάμενον ᾠόν, ἀλλὰ τὴν ἀρχὴν
οὐκ ἔχει, διὸ οὐ γίγνεται ἔμψυχον· ταύτην γὰρ τὸ τοῦ
ἄρρενος ἐπιφέρει σπέρμα. ὅταν δὲ μετάσχῃ τοιαύτης ἀρχῆς
τὸ περίττωμα τὸ τοῦ θήλεος κύημα γίγνεται. ⟦Τοῖς δ'
35 ὑγροῖς μὲν σωματώδεσι δὲ θερμαινομένοις περιίσταται—καθάπερ
καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἑψήμασι ψυχομένοις—τὸ περίξηρον. πάντα
1Hence, whereas fire generates no animal and we do not find any living thing forming in either solids or liquids under the influence of fire, the heat of the sun and that of animals does generate them. Not only is this true of the heat that works through the semen, but whatever other residuum of the 5animal nature there may be, this also has still a vital principle in it. From such considerations it is clear that the heat in animals neither is fire nor derives its origin from fire.
Let us return to the material of the semen, in and with which comes away from the male the spiritus conveying the principle of soul. Of this principle there are two kinds; the one is not 10connected with matter, and belongs to those animals in which is included something divine (to wit, what is called the reason), while the other is inseparable from matter. This material of the semen dissolves and evaporates because it has a liquid and watery nature. Therefore we ought not to expect it always to come out again from the female or to form any part of the embryo 15that has taken shape from it; the case resembles that of the fig-juice which curdles milk, for this too changes without becoming any part of the curdling masses.
It has been settled, then, in what sense the embryo and the semen have soul, and in what sense they have not; they have it potentially but not actually.
Now semen is a secretion and is moved with the same 20movement as that in virtue of which the body increases (this increase being due to subdivision of the nutriment in its last stage). When it has entered the uterus it puts into form the corresponding secretion of the female and moves it with the same movement wherewith it is moved itself. For the female’s contribution also is a secretion, and has all the arts in it potentially 25though none of them actually; it has in it potentially even those parts which differentiate the female from the male, for just as the young of mutilated parents are sometimes born mutilated and sometimes not, so also the young born of a female are sometimes female and sometimes male instead. For the female is, as it were, a mutilated male, and the catamenia are semen, 30only not pure; for there is only one thing they have not in them, the principle of soul. For this reason, whenever a wind-egg is produced by any animal, the egg so forming has in it the parts of both sexes potentially, but has not the principle in question, so that it does not develop into a living creature, for this is introduced by the semen of the male. When such a 35principle has ben imparted to the secretion of the female it becomes an embryo.
Let us return to the material of the semen, in and with which comes away from the male the spiritus conveying the principle of soul. Of this principle there are two kinds; the one is not 10connected with matter, and belongs to those animals in which is included something divine (to wit, what is called the reason), while the other is inseparable from matter. This material of the semen dissolves and evaporates because it has a liquid and watery nature. Therefore we ought not to expect it always to come out again from the female or to form any part of the embryo 15that has taken shape from it; the case resembles that of the fig-juice which curdles milk, for this too changes without becoming any part of the curdling masses.
It has been settled, then, in what sense the embryo and the semen have soul, and in what sense they have not; they have it potentially but not actually.
Now semen is a secretion and is moved with the same 20movement as that in virtue of which the body increases (this increase being due to subdivision of the nutriment in its last stage). When it has entered the uterus it puts into form the corresponding secretion of the female and moves it with the same movement wherewith it is moved itself. For the female’s contribution also is a secretion, and has all the arts in it potentially 25though none of them actually; it has in it potentially even those parts which differentiate the female from the male, for just as the young of mutilated parents are sometimes born mutilated and sometimes not, so also the young born of a female are sometimes female and sometimes male instead. For the female is, as it were, a mutilated male, and the catamenia are semen, 30only not pure; for there is only one thing they have not in them, the principle of soul. For this reason, whenever a wind-egg is produced by any animal, the egg so forming has in it the parts of both sexes potentially, but has not the principle in question, so that it does not develop into a living creature, for this is introduced by the semen of the male. When such a 35principle has ben imparted to the secretion of the female it becomes an embryo.
737b
1 δὲ τὰ σώματα συνέχει τὸ γλίσχρον· ὅπερ καὶ προϊοῦσι
καὶ μείζοσι γιγνομένοις ἡ τοῦ νεύρου λαμβάνει φύσις ἥπερ
συνέχει τὰ μόρια τῶν ζῴων, ἐν μὲν τοῖς οὖσα νεῦρον ἐν δὲ
τοῖς τὸ ἀνάλογον. τῆς δ' αὐτῆς μορφῆς ἐστι καὶ δέρμα καὶ
5 φλὲψ καὶ ὑμὴν καὶ πᾶν τὸ τοιοῦτον γένος· διαφέρει γὰρ
ταῦτα τῷ μᾶλλον καὶ ἧττον καὶ ὅλως ὑπεροχῇ καὶ ἐλλείψει.⟧
1Liquid but corporeal substances become surrounded by some kind of covering on heating, like the solid scum which forms on boiled foods when cooling. All bodies are held together by the glutinous; this quality, as the embryo develops and increases in size, is acquired by the sinewy substance, which holds 5together the parts of animals, being actual sinew in some and its analogue in others. To the same class belong also skin, blood-vessels, membranes, and the like, for these differ in being more or less glutinous and generally in excess and deficiency.
Book 2,Chapter 4 (737b8–741a5)
Τῶν δὲ ζῴων τὰ μὲν ἀτελεστέραν ἔχοντα τὴν φύσιν,
ὅταν γένηται κύημα τέλειον ζῷον δὲ μήπω τέλειον, θύραζε
10 προΐεται· δι' ἃς δ' αἰτίας εἴρηται πρότερον. τέλειον δ' ἤδη
τότ' ἐστὶν ὅταν τὸ μὲν ἄρρεν ᾖ τὸ δὲ θῆλυ τῶν κυημάτων—
ἐν ὅσοις ἐστὶν αὕτη ἡ διαφορὰ τῶν γιγνομένων· ἔνια γὰρ οὔτε
θῆλυ γεννᾷ οὔτ' ἄρρεν, ὅσα μηδ' αὐτὰ γίγνεται ἐκ θήλεος
καὶ ἄρρενος μηδ' ἐκ ζῴων μιγνυμένων. καὶ περὶ μὲν τῆς
15 τούτων γενέσεως ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν. Τὰ δὲ ζῳοτοκοῦντα ἐν αὑτοῖς
τὰ τέλεια τῶν ζῴων, μέχρι περ ἂν οὗ γεννήσῃ ζῷον καὶ
θύραζε ἐκπέμψῃ, ἔχει συμφυὲς ἐν αὑτῷ τὸ γιγνόμενον
ζῷον. Ὅσα δὲ θύραζε μὲν ζῳοτοκεῖ ἐν αὑτοῖς δ' ᾠοτοκεῖ τὸ
πρῶτον, ὅταν γεννήσῃ τὸ ᾠὸν τέλειον, τούτων ἐνίων μὲν ἀπολύεται
20 τὸ ᾠὸν ὥσπερ τῶν θύραζε ᾠοτοκούντων καὶ τὸ ζῷον
ἐκ τοῦ ᾠοῦ γίγνεται ἐν τῷ θήλει, ἐνίων δ' ὅταν καταναλωθῇ
ἡ ἐν τῷ ᾠῷ τροφὴ τελειοῦται ἀπὸ τῆς ὑστέρας, καὶ διὰ
τοῦτο οὐκ ἀπολύεται τὸ ᾠὸν ἀπὸ τῆς ὑστέρας. ταύτην δ'
ἔχουσι τὴν διαφορὰν οἱ σελαχώδεις ἰχθύες περὶ ὧν ὕστερον
25 καθ' αὑτὰ λεκτέον. Νῦν δ' ἀπὸ τῶν πρώτων ἀρκτέον πρῶτον·
ἔστι δὲ τὰ τέλεια ζῷα πρῶτα, τοιαῦτα δὲ τὰ ζῳοτοκοῦντα
καὶ τούτων ἄνθρωπος πρῶτον. Ἡ μὲν οὖν ἀπόκρισις γίγνεται
πᾶσι τοῦ σπέρματος ὥσπερ ἄλλου τινὸς περιττώματος. φέρεται
γὰρ ἕκαστον εἰς τὸν οἰκεῖον τόπον οὐθὲν ἀποβιαζομένου
30 τοῦ πνεύματος οὐδ' ἄλλης αἰτίας τοιαύτης ἀναγκαζούσης,
ὥσπερ τινές φασιν ἕλκειν τὰ αἰδοῖα φάσκοντες ὥσπερ τὰς
σικύας τῷ τε πνεύματι βιαζομένων—ὥσπερ ἐνδεχόμενον
ἄλλοθί που πορευθῆναι μὴ βιασαμένων ἢ ταύτην τὴν περίττωσιν
ἢ τὴν τῆς ὑγρᾶς ἢ ξηρᾶς τροφῆς, ὅτι τὰς ἐξόδους αὐτῶν
35 ἠθροισμένῳ τῷ πνεύματι συνεκκρίνουσιν. τοῦτο δὲ κοινὸν κατὰ
πάντων ὅσα δεῖ κινῆσαι· διὰ γὰρ τοῦ τὸ πνεῦμα κατασχεῖν
In those animals whose nature is comparatively imperfect, when a perfect embryo (which, however, is not yet a perfect animal) has 10been formed, it is cast out from the mother, for reasons previously stated. An embryo is then complete when it is either male or female, in the case of those animals who possess this distinction, for some (i.e. all those which are not themselves produced from a male or female parent nor from a union of the two) produce an offspring which is neither male nor female. Of the 15generation of these we shall speak later.
The perfect animals, those internally viviparous, keep the developing embryo within themselves and in close connexion until they give birth to a complete animal and bring it to light.
A third class is externally viviparous but first internally oviparous; they develop the egg into a perfect condition, and then in some cases the egg is set free 20as with creatures externally oviparous, and the animal is produced from the egg within the mother’s body; in other cases, when the nutriment from the egg is consumed, development is completed by connection with the uterus, and therefore the egg is not set free from the uterus. This character marks the cartilaginous fish, of which we must speak later by themselves.
Here we must 25make our first start from the first class; these are the perfect or viviparous animals, and of these the first is man. Now the secretion of the semen takes place in all of them just as does that of any other residual matter. For each is conveyed to its proper place without any force from the breath or compulsion of any other cause, as some assert, saying that the generative 30parts attract the semen like cupping-glasses, aided by the force of the breath, as if it were possible for either this secretion or the residue of the solid and liquid nutriment to go anywhere else than they do without the exertion of such a force. Their reason is that the discharge of both is attended by holding the breath, but this is a common feature of all cases when it is 35necessary to move anything, because strength arises through holding the breath.
The perfect animals, those internally viviparous, keep the developing embryo within themselves and in close connexion until they give birth to a complete animal and bring it to light.
A third class is externally viviparous but first internally oviparous; they develop the egg into a perfect condition, and then in some cases the egg is set free 20as with creatures externally oviparous, and the animal is produced from the egg within the mother’s body; in other cases, when the nutriment from the egg is consumed, development is completed by connection with the uterus, and therefore the egg is not set free from the uterus. This character marks the cartilaginous fish, of which we must speak later by themselves.
Here we must 25make our first start from the first class; these are the perfect or viviparous animals, and of these the first is man. Now the secretion of the semen takes place in all of them just as does that of any other residual matter. For each is conveyed to its proper place without any force from the breath or compulsion of any other cause, as some assert, saying that the generative 30parts attract the semen like cupping-glasses, aided by the force of the breath, as if it were possible for either this secretion or the residue of the solid and liquid nutriment to go anywhere else than they do without the exertion of such a force. Their reason is that the discharge of both is attended by holding the breath, but this is a common feature of all cases when it is 35necessary to move anything, because strength arises through holding the breath.
738a
1 ἡ ἰσχὺς ἐγγίγνεται, ἐπεὶ καὶ ἄνευ ταύτης τῆς βίας ἐκκρίνεται
τὰ περιττώματα καὶ καθεύδουσιν ἂν ἄνετοί τε καὶ πλήρεις
περιττώματος οἱ τόποι τύχωσιν ὄντες. ὅμοιον δὲ κἂν εἴ
τις φαίη τοῖς φυτοῖς ὑπὸ τοῦ πνεύματος ἑκάστοτε τὰ σπέρματα
5 ἀποκρίνεσθαι πρὸς τοὺς τόπους πρὸς οὓς εἴωθε φέρειν
τὸν καρπόν. ἀλλὰ τούτου μὲν αἴτιον, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, τὸ πᾶσιν
εἶναι μόρια δεκτικὰ τοῖς περιττώμασι τοῖς τ' ἀχρήστοις,
†οἷον τῇ τε ξηρᾷ καὶ τῇ ὑγρᾷ,† καὶ τῷ αἵματι τὰς
καλουμένας φλέβας. Τοῖς μὲν οὖν θήλεσι περὶ τὸν τῶν ὑστερῶν
10 τόπον, σχιζομένων ἄνωθεν τῶν δύο φλεβῶν τῆς τε
μεγάλης καὶ τῆς ἀορτῆς, πολλαὶ καὶ λεπταὶ φλέβες τελευτῶσιν
εἰς τὰς ὑστέρας, ὧν ὑπερπληρουμένων ἐκ τῆς τροφῆς
καὶ τῆς φύσεως διὰ ψυχρότητα πέττειν οὐ δυναμένης,
ἐκκρίνεται διὰ λεπτοτάτων φλεβῶν εἰς τὰς ὑστέρας, οὐ δυναμένων
15 διὰ τὴν στενοχωρίαν δέχεσθαι τὴν ὑπερβολὴν τοῦ
πλήθους, καὶ γίγνεται τὸ πάθος οἷον αἱμορροΐς. ἀκριβῶς μὲν
οὖν ἡ περίοδος οὐ τέτακται ταῖς γυναιξί, βούλεται δὲ φθινόντων
γίγνεσθαι τῶν μηνῶν εὐλόγως· ψυχρότερα γὰρ τὰ
σώματα τῶν ζῴων ὅταν καὶ τὸ περιέχον συμβαίνῃ γίγνεσθαι
20 τοσοῦτον, αἱ δὲ τῶν μηνῶν σύνοδοι ψυχραὶ διὰ τὴν τῆς
σελήνης ἀπόλειψιν, διόπερ καὶ χειμερίους συμβαίνει τὰς
συνόδους εἶναι τῶν μηνῶν μᾶλλον ἢ τὰς μεσότητας. μεταβεβληκότος
μὲν οὖν εἰς αἷμα τοῦ περιττώματος βούλεται
γίγνεσθαι τὰ καταμήνια κατὰ τὴν εἰρημένην περίοδον, μὴ
25 πεπεμμένου δὲ κατὰ μικρὸν ἀεί τι ἀποκρίνεται· διὸ τὰ
λευκὰ μικροῖς ἔτι καὶ παιδίοις οὖσι γίγνεται τοῖς θήλεσιν.
μετριάζουσαι μὲν οὖν ἀμφότεραι αὗται αἱ ἀποκρίσεις τῶν
περιττωμάτων τὰ σώματα σώζουσιν, ἅτε γιγνομένης καθάρσεως
τῶν περιττωμάτων ἃ τοῦ νοσεῖν αἴτια τοῖς σώμασιν·
30 μὴ γιγνομένων δὲ ἢ πλειόνων γιγνομένων βλάπτει· ποιεῖ
γὰρ ἢ νόσους ἢ τῶν σωμάτων καθαίρεσιν, διὸ καὶ τὰ λευκὰ
συνεχῶς γιγνόμενα καὶ πλεονάζοντα τὴν αὔξησιν ἀφαιρεῖται
τῶν παιδίων. Ἐξ ἀνάγκης μὲν οὖν ἡ περίττωσις αὕτη γίγνεται
τοῖς θήλεσι διὰ τὰς εἰρημένας αἰτίας· μὴ δυναμένης τε γὰρ
35 πέττειν τῆς φύσεως ἀνάγκη περίττωμα γίγνεσθαι μὴ μόνον
τῆς ἀχρήστου τροφῆς ἀλλὰ καὶ <τοῦ αἵματος> ἐν ταῖς φλεψίν,
ὑπερβάλλειν τε πληθύοντα κατὰ τὰς λεπτοτάτας φλέβας. ἕνεκα
1Why, even without this force the secretions or excretions are discharged in sleep if the parts concerned are full of them and are relaxed. One might as well say that it is by the breath that the seeds of plants are always segregated to the places where they are wont to 5bear fruit. No, the real cause, as has been stated already, is that there are special parts for receiving all the secretions, alike the useless (as the residues of the liquid and solid nutriment), and the blood, which has the so-called blood-vessels.
To consider now the region of the uterus in the female — the two blood-vessels, the 10great vessel and the aorta, divide higher up, and many fine vessels from them terminate in the uterus. These become over-filled from the nourishment they convey, nor is the female nature able to concoct it, because it is colder than man’s; so the blood is excreted through very fine vessels into the uterus, these being unable on account 15of their narrowness to receive the excessive quantity, and the result is a sort of haemorrhage. The period is not accurately defined in women, but tends to return during the waning of the moon. This we should expect, for the bodies of animals are colder when the environment happens to become so, and the time of change from one month 20to another is cold because of the absence of the moon, whence also it results that this time is stormier than the middle of the month. When then the residue of the nourishment has changed into blood, the catamenia tend to occur at the above-mentioned period, but when it is not concocted a little matter at a time is always coming away, 25and this is why ‘whites’ appear in females while still small, in fact mere children. If both these discharges of the secretions are moderate, the body remains in good health, for they act as a purification of the secretions which are the causes of a morbid state of body; if they do not occur at all or if they are excessive, they are 30injurious, either causing illness or pulling down the patient; hence whites, if continuous and excessive, prevent girls from growing. This secretion then is necessarily discharged by females for the reasons given; for, the female nature being unable to concoct the nourishment thoroughly, there must not only be left a residue of the useless 35nutriment, but also there must be a residue in the blood-vessels, and this filling the channels of the finest vessels must overflow.
To consider now the region of the uterus in the female — the two blood-vessels, the 10great vessel and the aorta, divide higher up, and many fine vessels from them terminate in the uterus. These become over-filled from the nourishment they convey, nor is the female nature able to concoct it, because it is colder than man’s; so the blood is excreted through very fine vessels into the uterus, these being unable on account 15of their narrowness to receive the excessive quantity, and the result is a sort of haemorrhage. The period is not accurately defined in women, but tends to return during the waning of the moon. This we should expect, for the bodies of animals are colder when the environment happens to become so, and the time of change from one month 20to another is cold because of the absence of the moon, whence also it results that this time is stormier than the middle of the month. When then the residue of the nourishment has changed into blood, the catamenia tend to occur at the above-mentioned period, but when it is not concocted a little matter at a time is always coming away, 25and this is why ‘whites’ appear in females while still small, in fact mere children. If both these discharges of the secretions are moderate, the body remains in good health, for they act as a purification of the secretions which are the causes of a morbid state of body; if they do not occur at all or if they are excessive, they are 30injurious, either causing illness or pulling down the patient; hence whites, if continuous and excessive, prevent girls from growing. This secretion then is necessarily discharged by females for the reasons given; for, the female nature being unable to concoct the nourishment thoroughly, there must not only be left a residue of the useless 35nutriment, but also there must be a residue in the blood-vessels, and this filling the channels of the finest vessels must overflow.
738b
1 δὲ τοῦ βελτίονος καὶ τοῦ τέλους ἡ φύσις καταχρῆται πρὸς τὸν
τόπον τοῦτον τῆς γενέσεως χάριν ὅπως οἷον ἔμελλε τοιοῦτον
γένηται ἕτερον· ἤδη γὰρ ὑπάρχει δυνάμει γε ὂν τοιοῦτον οἵουπέρ
ἐστι σώματος ἀπόκρισις. Τοῖς μὲν οὖν θήλεσιν ἅπασιν
5 ἀναγκαῖον γίγνεσθαι περίττωμα, τοῖς μὲν αἱματικοῖς πλεῖον
καὶ τούτων ἀνθρώπῳ πλεῖστον· ἀνάγκη δὲ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις
ἀθροίζεσθαί τινα σύστασιν εἰς τὸν ὑστερικὸν τόπον. τὸ δ' αἴτιον
ὅτι τοῖς θ' αἱματικοῖς πλεῖον καὶ τούτων ὅτι πλεῖστον
τοῖς ἀνθρώποις εἴρηται πρότερον. τοῦ δ' ἐν μὲν τοῖς θήλεσι
10 πᾶσιν ὑπάρχειν περίττωμα τοιοῦτον, ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἄρρεσι μὴ
πᾶσιν—ἔνια γὰρ οὐ προΐεται γονήν, ἀλλ' ὥσπερ τὰ προϊέμενα
τῇ ἐν τῇ γονῇ κινήσει δημιουργεῖ τὸ συνιστάμενον ἐκ
τῆς ἐν τοῖς θήλεσιν ὕλης, οὕτω τὰ τοιαῦτα [ἐν] τῇ ἐν αὑτοῖς
κινήσει ἐν τῷ μορίῳ τούτῳ ὅθεν ἀποκρίνεται τὸ σπέρμα
15 ταὐτὸ ποιεῖ καὶ συνίστησιν. τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶν ὁ τόπος ὁ περὶ τὸ
ὑπόζωμα πᾶσι τοῖς ἔχουσιν· ἀρχὴ γὰρ τῆς φύσεως ἡ καρδία
καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον, τὸ δὲ κάτω προσθήκη καὶ τούτου χάριν.
—αἴτιον δὴ τοῦ τοῖς μὲν ἄρρεσι μὴ πᾶσιν εἶναι περίττωμα
γεννητικὸν τοῖς δὲ θήλεσι πᾶσιν, ὅτι τὸ ζῷον σῶμα ἔμψυχόν
20 ἐστιν. ἀεὶ δὲ παρέχει τὸ μὲν θῆλυ τὴν ὕλην τὸ δ'
ἄρρεν τὸ δημιουργοῦν· ταύτην γὰρ αὐτῶν φαμεν ἔχειν τὴν
δύναμιν ἑκάτερον, καὶ τὸ εἶναι τὸ μὲν θῆλυ τὸ δ' ἄρρεν
τοῦτο. ὥστε τὸ μὲν θῆλυ ἀναγκαῖον παρέχειν σῶμα καὶ ὄγκον,
τὸ δ' ἄρρεν οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον· οὔτε γὰρ τὰ ὄργανα ἀνάγκη
25 ἐνυπάρχειν ἐν τοῖς γιγνομένοις οὔτε τὸ ποιοῦν. ἔστι δὲ τὸ μὲν
σῶμα ἐκ τοῦ θήλεος ἡ δὲ ψυχὴ ἐκ τοῦ ἄρρενος· ἡ γὰρ
ψυχὴ οὐσία σώματός τινός ἐστιν. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ὅσα τῶν μὴ
ὁμογενῶν μίγνυται θῆλυ καὶ ἄρρεν (μίγνυται δὲ ὧν ἴσοι οἱ
χρόνοι καὶ ἐγγὺς αἱ κυήσεις, καὶ τὰ μεγέθη τῶν σωμάτων
30 μὴ πολὺ διέστηκεν), τὸ μὲν πρῶτον κατὰ τὴν ὁμοιότητα γίγνεται
κοινὸν ἀμφοτέρων, οἷον τὰ γιγνόμενα ἐξ ἀλώπεκος
καὶ κυνὸς καὶ πέρδικος καὶ ἀλεκτρυόνος, προϊόντος δὲ τοῦ
χρόνου καὶ ἐξ ἑτέρων ἕτερα γιγνόμενα τέλος ἀποβαίνει
κατὰ τὸ θῆλυ τὴν μορφήν, ὥσπερ τὰ σπέρματα τὰ ξενικὰ
35 κατὰ τὴν χώραν· αὕτη γὰρ ἡ τὴν ὕλην παρέχουσα καὶ τὸ
σῶμα τοῖς σπέρμασίν ἐστιν. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο τοῖς μὲν θήλεσι τὸ
μόριον τὸ δεκτικὸν οὐ πόρος ἐστίν, ἀλλ' ἔχουσι διάστασιν αἱ ὑστέραι·
1Then Nature, aiming at the best end, uses it up in this place for the sake of generation, that another creature may come into being of the same kind as the former was going to be, for the menstrual blood is already potentially such as the body from which it is discharged.
In all females, then, there must 5necessarily be such a secretion, more indeed in those that have blood and of these most of all in man, but in the others also some matter must be collected in the uterine region. The reason why there is more in those that have blood and most in man has been already given, but why, if all females have such a secretion, have not all males one to correspond? For some of them do 10not emit semen but, just as those which do emit it fashion by the movement in the semen the mass forming from the material supplied by the female, so do the animals in question bring the same to pass and exert the same formative power by the movement within themselves in that part from whence the semen is secreted. This is the region about the diaphragm in all those animals 15which have one, for the heart or its analogue is the first principle of a natural body, while the lower part is a mere addition for the sake of it. Now the reason why it is not all males that have a generative secretion, while all females do, is that the animal is a body with Soul or life; the female always provides the material, the male that which fashions it, for this is the 20power that we say they each possess, and this is what is meant by calling them male and female. Thus while it is necessary for the female to provide a body and a material mass, it is not necessary for the male, because it is not within the work of art or the embryo that the tools or the maker must exist. While the body is from the female, it is the soul that is from the male, for 25the soul is the reality of a particular body. For this reason if animals of a different kind are crossed (and this is possible when the periods of gestation are equal and conception takes place nearly at the same season and there is no great difference in the size of the animals), the first cross has a common resemblance to both parents, as the hybrid between fox and dog, 30partridge and domestic fowl, but as time goes on and one generation springs from another, the final result resembles the female in form, just as foreign seeds produce plants varying in accordance with the country in which they are sown. For it is the soil that gives to the seeds the material and the body of the plant. And hence the part of the female which receives the semen is not 35a mere passage, but the uterus has a considerable width, whereas the males that emit semen have only passages for this purpose, and these are bloodless.
In all females, then, there must 5necessarily be such a secretion, more indeed in those that have blood and of these most of all in man, but in the others also some matter must be collected in the uterine region. The reason why there is more in those that have blood and most in man has been already given, but why, if all females have such a secretion, have not all males one to correspond? For some of them do 10not emit semen but, just as those which do emit it fashion by the movement in the semen the mass forming from the material supplied by the female, so do the animals in question bring the same to pass and exert the same formative power by the movement within themselves in that part from whence the semen is secreted. This is the region about the diaphragm in all those animals 15which have one, for the heart or its analogue is the first principle of a natural body, while the lower part is a mere addition for the sake of it. Now the reason why it is not all males that have a generative secretion, while all females do, is that the animal is a body with Soul or life; the female always provides the material, the male that which fashions it, for this is the 20power that we say they each possess, and this is what is meant by calling them male and female. Thus while it is necessary for the female to provide a body and a material mass, it is not necessary for the male, because it is not within the work of art or the embryo that the tools or the maker must exist. While the body is from the female, it is the soul that is from the male, for 25the soul is the reality of a particular body. For this reason if animals of a different kind are crossed (and this is possible when the periods of gestation are equal and conception takes place nearly at the same season and there is no great difference in the size of the animals), the first cross has a common resemblance to both parents, as the hybrid between fox and dog, 30partridge and domestic fowl, but as time goes on and one generation springs from another, the final result resembles the female in form, just as foreign seeds produce plants varying in accordance with the country in which they are sown. For it is the soil that gives to the seeds the material and the body of the plant. And hence the part of the female which receives the semen is not 35a mere passage, but the uterus has a considerable width, whereas the males that emit semen have only passages for this purpose, and these are bloodless.
739a
1 τοῖς δ' ἄρρεσι πόροι τοῖς σπέρμα προϊεμένοις, ἄναιμοι
δ' οὗτοι. Τῶν δὲ περιττωμάτων ἕκαστον ἅμα ἔν τε τοῖς οἰκείοις
τόποις ἐστὶ καὶ γίγνεται περίττωμα· πρότερον δ' οὐθέν,
ἂν μή τι βίᾳ πολλῇ καὶ παρὰ φύσιν. Δι' ἣν μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν
5 ἀποκρίνεται τὰ περιττώματα τὰ γεννητικὰ τοῖς ζῴοις εἴρηται.
Ὅταν δ' ἔλθῃ τὸ σπέρμα ἀπὸ τοῦ ἄρρενος τῶν σπέρμα
προϊεμένων συνίστησι τὸ καθαρώτατον τοῦ περιττώματος—τὸ
γὰρ πλεῖστον ἄχρηστον καὶ ἐν τοῖς καταμηνίοις ἐστὶν ὑγρὸν <ὄν>,
ὥσπερ καὶ τῆς τοῦ ἄρρενος γονῆς τὸ ὑγρότατον καὶ τῆς εἰςάπαξ
10 προέσεως· καὶ ἡ προτέρα τῆς ὑστέρας ἄγονος μᾶλλον
τοῖς πλείστοις· ἐλάττω γὰρ ἔχει θερμότητα ψυχικὴν διὰ τὴν
ἀπεψίαν, τὸ δὲ πεπεμμένον πάχος ἔχει καὶ σεσωμάτωται
μᾶλλον. Ὅσαις δὲ μὴ γίγνεται θύραζέ τις πρόεσις ἢ τῶν
γυναικῶν ἢ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων διὰ τὸ μὴ ἐνυπάρχειν ἄχρηστον
15 περίττωμα πολὺ ἐν τῇ ἀποκρίσει τῇ τοιαύτῃ, τοσοῦτόν ἐστι
τὸ ἐγγιγνόμενον ὅσον τὸ ὑπολειπόμενον τοῖς θύραζε προϊεμένοις
ζῴοις, ὃ συνίστησιν ἡ τοῦ ἄρρενος δύναμις ἡ ἐν τῷ σπέρματι
τῷ ἀποκρινομένῳ, ἢ εἰς τὸ ἄρρεν ἐλθόντος τοῦ ἀνάλογον μορίου
ταῖς ὑστέραις, ὅπερ ἔν τισι τῶν ἐντόμων φαίνεται
20 συμβαῖνον. Ὅτι δ' ἡ γιγνομένη ὑγρότης μετὰ τῆς ἡδονῆς τοῖς
θήλεσιν οὐδὲν συμβάλλεται εἰς τὸ κύημα εἴρηται πρότερον.
μάλιστα δ' ἂν δόξειεν ὅτι καθάπερ τοῖς ἄρρεσι γίγνεται
καὶ ταῖς γυναιξὶ νύκτωρ ὃ καλοῦσιν ἐξονειρώττειν. ἀλλὰ
τοῦτο σημεῖον οὐθέν· γίγνεται γὰρ καὶ τοῖς νέοις τῶν ἀρρένων
25 τοῖς μέλλουσι μὲν μηθὲν δὲ προϊεμένοις ἢ τοῖς ἔτι προϊεμένοις
ἄγονον. Ἄνευ μὲν οὖν τῆς τοῦ ἄρρενος προέσεως ἐν τῇ συνουσίᾳ
ἀδύνατον συλλαβεῖν καὶ ἄνευ τῆς τῶν γυναικείων περιττώσεως
ἢ θύραζε προελθούσης ἢ ἐντὸς ἱκανῆς οὔσης. οὐ συμβαινούσης
μέντοι τῆς εἰωθυίας γίγνεσθαι τοῖς θήλεσιν ἡδονῆς
30 περὶ τὴν ὁμιλίαν τὴν τοιαύτην συλλαμβάνουσιν, ἂν τύχῃ ὁ
τόπος γ' ὀργῶν καὶ καταβεβηκυῖαι αἱ ὑστέραι κάτω. ἀλλ' ὡς
ἐπὶ τὸ πολὺ συμβαίνει ἐκείνως διὰ τὸ μὴ συμμεμυκέναι
τὸ στόμα γιγνομένης τῆς ἐκκρίσεως, μεθ' ἧς εἴωθε γίγνεσθαι
καὶ τοῖς ἄρρεσιν ἡ ἡδονὴ καὶ ταῖς γυναιξίν· οὕτω δ' ἔχοντος
35 εὐοδεῖται μᾶλλον καὶ τῷ τοῦ ἄρρενος σπέρματι. Ἡ δ' ἄφεσις
οὐκ ἐντὸς γίγνεται καθάπερ οἴονταί τινες (στενὸν γὰρ τὸ στόμα
τῶν ὑστερῶν), ἀλλ' εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν οὗπερ τὸ θῆλυ προΐεται
1Each of the secretions becomes such at the moment when it is in its proper place; before that there is nothing of the sort unless with much violence and contrary to nature.
We have thus stated the reason for which the generative secretions are formed in animals. But when the semen 5from the male (in those animals which emit semen) has entered, it puts into form the purest part of the female secretion (for the greater part of the catamenia also is useless and fluid, as is the most fluid part of the male secretion, i.e. in a single emission, the earlier discharge being in most cases apt to be infertile rather than the later, having 10less vital heat through want of concoction, whereas that which is concocted is thick and of a more material nature).
If there is no external discharge, either in women or other animals, on account of there not being much useless and superfluous matter in the secretion, then the quantity forming within the female altogether is as much as what is retained 15within those animals which have an external discharge; this is put into form by the power of the male residing in the semen secreted by him, or, as is clearly seen to happen in some insects, by the part in the female analogous to the uterus being inserted into the male.
It has been previously stated that the discharge accompanying sexual pleasure in 20the female contributes nothing to the embryo. The chief argument for the opposite view is that what are called bad dreams occur by night with women as with men; but this is no proof, for the same thing happens to young men also who do not yet emit semen, and to those who do emit semen but whose semen is infertile.
It is impossible to conceive without the 25emission of the male in union and without the secretion of the corresponding female material, whether it be discharged externally or whether there is only enough within the body. Women conceive, however, without experiencing the pleasure usual in such intercourse, if the part chance to be in heat and the uterus to have descended. But generally speaking 30the opposite is the case, because the os uteri is not closed when the discharge takes place which is usually accompanied by pleasure in women as well as men, and when this is so there is a readier way for the semen of the male to be drawn into the uterus.
The actual discharge does not take place within the uterus as some think, the os uteri being too 35narrow, but it is in the region in front of this, where the female discharges the moisture found in some cases, that the male emits the semen.
We have thus stated the reason for which the generative secretions are formed in animals. But when the semen 5from the male (in those animals which emit semen) has entered, it puts into form the purest part of the female secretion (for the greater part of the catamenia also is useless and fluid, as is the most fluid part of the male secretion, i.e. in a single emission, the earlier discharge being in most cases apt to be infertile rather than the later, having 10less vital heat through want of concoction, whereas that which is concocted is thick and of a more material nature).
If there is no external discharge, either in women or other animals, on account of there not being much useless and superfluous matter in the secretion, then the quantity forming within the female altogether is as much as what is retained 15within those animals which have an external discharge; this is put into form by the power of the male residing in the semen secreted by him, or, as is clearly seen to happen in some insects, by the part in the female analogous to the uterus being inserted into the male.
It has been previously stated that the discharge accompanying sexual pleasure in 20the female contributes nothing to the embryo. The chief argument for the opposite view is that what are called bad dreams occur by night with women as with men; but this is no proof, for the same thing happens to young men also who do not yet emit semen, and to those who do emit semen but whose semen is infertile.
It is impossible to conceive without the 25emission of the male in union and without the secretion of the corresponding female material, whether it be discharged externally or whether there is only enough within the body. Women conceive, however, without experiencing the pleasure usual in such intercourse, if the part chance to be in heat and the uterus to have descended. But generally speaking 30the opposite is the case, because the os uteri is not closed when the discharge takes place which is usually accompanied by pleasure in women as well as men, and when this is so there is a readier way for the semen of the male to be drawn into the uterus.
The actual discharge does not take place within the uterus as some think, the os uteri being too 35narrow, but it is in the region in front of this, where the female discharges the moisture found in some cases, that the male emits the semen.
739b
1 τὴν ἐν ἐνίαις αὐτῶν ἰκμάδα γιγνομένην, ἐνταῦθα καὶ τὸ
ἄρρεν προΐεται [ἐάν τις ἐξικμάσῃ]. ὁτὲ μὲν οὖν μένει τοῦτον
ἔχουσα τὸν τόπον, ὁτὲ δέ, ἂν τύχῃ συμμέτρως ἔχουσα
καὶ θερμὴ διὰ τὴν κάθαρσιν ἡ ὑστέρα, εἴσω σπᾷ. σημεῖον
5 δέ· καὶ γὰρ τὰ πρόσθετα ὑγρὰ προστεθέντα ἀφαιρεῖται ξηρά·
ἔτι δὲ ὅσα τῶν ζῴων πρὸς τῷ ὑποζώματι ἔχει τὰς
ὑστέρας καθάπερ ὄρνις καὶ τῶν ἰχθύων οἱ ζῳοτοκοῦντες, ἀδύνατον
ἐκεῖ μὴ σπᾶσθαι τὸ σπέρμα ἀλλ' ἀφεθὲν ἐλθεῖν.
ἕλκει δὲ τὴν γονὴν ὁ τόπος διὰ τὴν θερμότητα τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν.
10 καὶ ἡ τῶν καταμηνίων δὲ ἔκκρισις καὶ συνάθροισις ἐμπυρεύει
θερμότητα ἐν τῷ μορίῳ τούτῳ, ὥστε καθάπερ τὰ
κωνικὰ τῶν ἀγγείων ὅταν θερμῷ διακλυσθῇ σπᾷ τὸ ὕδωρ
εἰς αὑτὰ καταστρεφομένου τοῦ στόματος. καὶ τοῦτον μὲν τὸν
τρόπον γίγνεται σπάσις, ὡς δέ τινες λέγουσι τοῖς ὀργανικοῖς
15 πρὸς τὴν συνουσίαν μορίοις οὐ γίγνεται κατ' οὐθένα τρόπον.
ἀνάπαλιν δὲ συμβαίνει καὶ τοῖς λέγουσι προΐεσθαι καὶ τὴν
γυναῖκα σπέρμα· προϊεμέναις γὰρ ἔξω συμβαίνει ταῖς ὑστέραις
πάλιν εἴσω σπᾶν, εἴπερ μιχθήσεται τῇ γονῇ τῇ τοῦ
ἄρρενος. τὸ δ' οὕτω γίγνεσθαι περίεργον, ἡ δὲ φύσις οὐδὲν
20 ποιεῖ περίεργον. Ὅταν δὲ συστῇ ἡ ἐν ταῖς ὑστέραις ἀπόκρισις
τοῦ θήλεος ὑπὸ τῆς τοῦ ἄρρενος γονῆς, παραπλήσιον ποιούσης
ὥσπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ γάλακτος τῆς πυετίας—καὶ γὰρ ἡ πυετία
γάλα ἐστὶ θερμότητα ζωτικὴν ἔχον ἣ τὸ ὅμοιον εἰς ἓν ἄγει
καὶ συνίστησι, καὶ ἡ γονὴ πρὸς τὴν τῶν καταμηνίων φύσιν
25 ταὐτὸ πέπονθεν· ἡ γὰρ αὐτὴ φύσις ἐστὶ γάλακτος καὶ καταμηνίων—συνιόντος
δὴ τοῦ σωματώδους ἐκκρίνεται τὸ ὑγρὸν
καὶ περιίστανται κύκλῳ ξηραινομένων τῶν γεηρῶν ὑμένες,
καὶ ἐξ ἀνάγκης καὶ ἕνεκά τινος· καὶ γὰρ θερμαινομένων
ξηραίνεσθαι ἀναγκαῖον τὰ ἔσχατα καὶ ψυχομένων, καὶ δεῖ
30 μὴ ἐν ὑγρῷ τὸ ζῷον εἶναι ἀλλὰ κεχωρισμένον. καλοῦνται
δὲ τούτων οἱ μὲν ὑμένες τὰ δὲ χόρια, διαφέροντα τῷ μᾶλλον
καὶ ἧττον· ὁμοίως δ' ἐνυπάρχουσιν ἔν τε τοῖς ᾠοτόκοις
ταῦτα καὶ τοῖς ζῳοτόκοις. Ὅταν δὲ συστῇ τὸ κύημα ἤδη
παραπλήσιον ποιεῖ τοῖς σπειρομένοις. ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχὴ καὶ
35 ἐν τοῖς σπέρμασιν ἐν αὐτοῖς ἐστιν ἡ πρώτη· ὅταν δ' αὕτη
ἀποκριθῇ ἐνοῦσα δυνάμει πρότερον, ἀπὸ ταύτης ἀφίεται ὅ
τε βλαστὸς καὶ ἡ ῥίζα. αὕτη δ' ἐστὶν ᾗ τὴν τροφὴν λαμβάνει·
1Sometimes it remains in this place; at other times, if the uterus chance to be conveniently placed and hot on account of the purgation of the catamenia, it draws it within itself. A proof of this is that pessaries, though wet when applied, are removed dry. Moreover, in all those animals 5which have the uterus near the hypozoma, as birds and viviparous fishes, it is impossible that the semen should be so discharged as to enter it; it must be drawn into it. This region, on account of the heat which is in it, attracts the semen. The discharge and collection of the catamenia also excite heat in this part. Hence it acts like cone-shaped vessels 10which, when they have been washed out with hot water, their mouth being turned downwards, draw water into themselves. And this is the way things are drawn up, but some say that nothing of the kind happens with the organic parts concerned in copulation. Precisely the opposite is the case of those who say the woman emits semen as well as the man, for if 15she emits it outside the uterus this must then draw it back again into itself if it is to be mixed with the semen of the male. But this is a superfluous proceeding, and Nature does nothing superfluous.
When the material secreted by the female in the uterus has been fixed by the semen of the male (this acts in the same way as rennet acts upon milk, for rennet 20is a kind of milk containing vital heat, which brings into one mass and fixes the similar material, and the relation of the semen to the catamenia is the same, milk and the catamenia being of the same nature)— when, I say, the more solid part comes together, the liquid is separated off from it, and as the earthy parts solidify membranes form all round 25it; this is both a necessary result and for a final cause, the former because the surface of a mass must solidify on heating as well as on cooling, the latter because the foetus must not be in a liquid but be separated from it. Some of these are called membranes and others choria, the difference being one of more or less, and they exist in ovipara and 30vivipara alike.
When the embryo is once formed, it acts like the seeds of plants. For seeds also contain the first principle of growth in themselves, and when this (which previously exists in them only potentially) has been differentiated, the shoot and the root are sent off from it, and it is by the root that the plant gets nourishment; for it needs growth. 35So also in the embryo all the parts exist potentially in a way at the same time, but the first principle is furthest on the road to realization.
When the material secreted by the female in the uterus has been fixed by the semen of the male (this acts in the same way as rennet acts upon milk, for rennet 20is a kind of milk containing vital heat, which brings into one mass and fixes the similar material, and the relation of the semen to the catamenia is the same, milk and the catamenia being of the same nature)— when, I say, the more solid part comes together, the liquid is separated off from it, and as the earthy parts solidify membranes form all round 25it; this is both a necessary result and for a final cause, the former because the surface of a mass must solidify on heating as well as on cooling, the latter because the foetus must not be in a liquid but be separated from it. Some of these are called membranes and others choria, the difference being one of more or less, and they exist in ovipara and 30vivipara alike.
When the embryo is once formed, it acts like the seeds of plants. For seeds also contain the first principle of growth in themselves, and when this (which previously exists in them only potentially) has been differentiated, the shoot and the root are sent off from it, and it is by the root that the plant gets nourishment; for it needs growth. 35So also in the embryo all the parts exist potentially in a way at the same time, but the first principle is furthest on the road to realization.
740a
1 δεῖται γὰρ αὐξήσεως τὸ φυτόν. οὕτω καὶ ἐν τῷ κυήματι
τρόπον τινὰ πάντων ἐνόντων τῶν μορίων δυνάμει ἡ ἀρχὴ
πρὸ ὁδοῦ μάλιστα ἐνυπάρχει. διὸ ἀποκρίνεται πρῶτον ἡ
καρδία ἐνεργείᾳ. καὶ τοῦτο οὐ μόνον ἐπὶ τῆς αἰσθήσεως δῆλον
5 (συμβαίνει γὰρ οὕτως) ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ λόγου· ὅταν γὰρ
ἀπ' ἀμφοῖν ἀποκριθῇ δεῖ αὐτὸ αὑτὸ διοικεῖν τὸ γενόμενον
καθάπερ ἀποικισθὲν τέκνον ἀπὸ πατρός. ὥστε δεῖ ἀρχὴν
ἔχειν ἀφ' ἧς καὶ ὕστερον ἡ διακόσμησις τοῦ σώματος γίγνεται
τοῖς ζῴοις. εἰ γὰρ ἔξωθέν ποτ' ἔσται καὶ ὕστερον ἐνεσομένη
10 οὐ μόνον διαπορήσειεν ἄν τις τὸ πότε, ἀλλ' ὅτι ἀνάγκη,
ὅταν ἕκαστον χωρίζηται τῶν μορίων, ταύτην ὑπάρχειν
πρῶτον ἐξ ἧς καὶ ἡ αὔξησις ὑπάρχει καὶ ἡ κίνησις
τοῖς ἄλλοις μορίοις. διόπερ ὅσοι λέγουσιν, ὥσπερ Δημόκριτος,
τὰ ἔξω πρῶτον διακρίνεσθαι τῶν ζῴων, ὕστερον δὲ τὰ
15 ἐντός, οὐκ ὀρθῶς λέγουσιν, ὥσπερ ξυλίνων ἢ λιθίνων ζῴων· τὰ
μὲν γὰρ τοιαῦτ' οὐκ ἔχει ἀρχὴν ὅλως, τὰ δὲ ζῷα πάντ'
ἔχει καὶ ἐντὸς ἔχει. διὸ πρῶτον ἡ καρδία φαίνεται διωρισμένη
πᾶσι τοῖς ἐναίμοις· ἀρχὴ γὰρ αὕτη καὶ τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν
καὶ τῶν ἀνομοιομερῶν. ἤδη γὰρ ἀρχὴν ταύτην ἄξιον
20 ἀκοῦσαι τοῦ ζῴου καὶ τοῦ συστήματος ὅταν δέηται τροφῆς· τὸ
γὰρ δὴ ὂν αὐξάνεται. τροφὴ δὲ ζῴου ἡ ἐσχάτη αἷμα καὶ
τὸ ἀνάλογον, τούτων δ' ἀγγεῖον αἱ φλέβες· διὸ ἡ καρδία
καὶ τούτων ἀρχή. δῆλον δὲ τοῦτο ἐκ τῶν ἱστοριῶν καὶ τῶν
ἀνατομῶν. Ἐπεὶ δὲ δυνάμει μὲν ἤδη ζῷον ἀτελὲς δέ, ἄλλοθεν
25 ἀναγκαῖον λαμβάνειν τὴν τροφήν· διὸ χρῆται τῇ ὑστέρᾳ
καὶ τῇ ἐχούσῃ ὥσπερ γῇ φυτόν, τοῦ λαμβάνειν τροφὴν ἕως
ἂν τελεωθῇ πρὸς τὸ εἶναι ἤδη ζῷον δυνάμει πορευτικόν. διὸ
ἐκ τῆς καρδίας τὰς δύο φλέβας πρώτας ἡ φύσις ὑπέγραψεν·
ἀπὸ δὲ τούτων φλέβια ἀπήρτηται πρὸς τὴν ὑστέραν ὁ
30 καλούμενος ὀμφαλός. ἔστι γὰρ ὁ ὀμφαλὸς φλέψ, τοῖς μὲν
μία τοῖς δὲ πλείους τῶν ζῴων. περὶ δὲ ταύτας κέλυφος
δερματικὸν [ὁ καλούμενος ὀμφαλὸς] διὰ τὸ δεῖσθαι σωτηρίας
καὶ σκέπης τὴν τῶν φλεβῶν ἀσθένειαν. αἱ δὲ φλέβες
οἷον ῥίζαι πρὸς τὴν ὑστέραν συνάπτουσι, δι' ὧν λαμβάνει τὸ
35 κύημα τὴν τροφήν. τούτου γὰρ χάριν ἐν ταῖς ὑστέραις μένει
τὸ ζῷον, ἀλλ' οὐχ ὡς Δημόκριτός φησιν ἵνα διαπλάττηται
τὰ μόρια κατὰ τὰ μόρια τῆς ἐχούσης. τοῦτο γὰρ ἐπὶ τῶν
1Therefore the heart is first differentiated in actuality. This is clear not only to the senses (for it is so) but also on theoretical grounds. For whenever the young animal has been separated from both parents it must be able to manage itself, like a son who has set up house away from 5his father. Hence it must have a first principle from which comes the ordering of the body at a later stage also, for if it is to come in from outside at later period to dwell in it, not only may the question be asked at what time it is to do so, but also we may object that, when each of the parts is separating from the rest, it is necessary that this 10principle should exist first from which comes growth and movement to the other parts. (Wherefore all who say, as did Democritus, that the external parts of animals are first differentiated and the internal later, are much mistaken; it is as if they were talking of animals of stone or wood. For such as these have no principle of growth at all, but all 15animals have, and have it within themselves.) Therefore it is that the heart appears first distinctly marked off in all the sanguinea, for this is the first principle or origin of both homogeneous and heterogeneous parts, since from the moment that the animal or organism needs nourishment, from that moment does this deserve to be called its principle or 20origin. For the animal grows, and the nutriment, in its final stage, of an animal is the blood or its analogue, and of this the blood-vessels are the receptacle, wherefore the heart is the principle or origin of these also. (This is clear from the Enquiries and the anatomical drawings.)
Since the embryo is already potentially an animal but an imperfect one, 25it must obtain its nourishment from elsewhere; accordingly it makes use of the uterus and the mother, as a plant does of the earth, to get nourishment, until it is perfected to the point of being now an animal potentially locomotive. So Nature has first designed the two blood-vessels from the heart, and from these smaller vessels branch off to the uterus. 30These are what is called the umbilicus, for this is a blood-vessel, consisting of one or more vessels in different animals. Round these is a skin-like integument, because the weakness of the vessels needs protection and shelter. The vessels join on to the uterus like the roots of plants, and through them the embryo receives its nourishment. This is why 35the animal remains in the uterus, not, as Democritus says, that the parts of the embryo may be moulded in conformity with those of the mother.
Since the embryo is already potentially an animal but an imperfect one, 25it must obtain its nourishment from elsewhere; accordingly it makes use of the uterus and the mother, as a plant does of the earth, to get nourishment, until it is perfected to the point of being now an animal potentially locomotive. So Nature has first designed the two blood-vessels from the heart, and from these smaller vessels branch off to the uterus. 30These are what is called the umbilicus, for this is a blood-vessel, consisting of one or more vessels in different animals. Round these is a skin-like integument, because the weakness of the vessels needs protection and shelter. The vessels join on to the uterus like the roots of plants, and through them the embryo receives its nourishment. This is why 35the animal remains in the uterus, not, as Democritus says, that the parts of the embryo may be moulded in conformity with those of the mother.
740b
1 ᾠοτοκούντων φανερόν· ἐκεῖνα γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ᾠοῖς λαμβάνει τὴν
διάκρισιν κεχωρισμένα τῆς μήτρας. Ἀπορήσειε δ' ἄν τις εἰ
τὸ αἷμα μὲν τροφή ἐστιν, ἡ δὲ καρδία πρώτη γίγνεται ἔναιμος
οὖσα, [τὸ δ' αἷμα τροφή,] ἡ δὲ τροφὴ θύραθεν, πόθεν εἰσῆλθεν
5 ἡ πρώτη τροφή; ἢ τοῦτ' οὐκ ἀληθὲς ὡς πᾶσα θύραθεν, ἀλλ'
εὐθὺς ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς τῶν φυτῶν σπέρμασιν ἔνεστί τι τοιοῦτον
τὸ φαινόμενον πρῶτον γαλακτῶδες, οὕτω καὶ ἐν τῇ ὕλῃ τῶν
ζῴων τὸ περίττωμα τῆς συστάσεως τροφή ἐστιν. Ἡ μὲν οὖν
αὔξησις τῷ κυήματι γίγνεται διὰ τοῦ ὀμφαλοῦ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον
10 ὅνπερ διὰ τῶν ῥιζῶν τοῖς φυτοῖς, καὶ τοῖς ζῴοις αὐτοῖς
ὅταν ἀπολυθῶσιν ἐκ τῆς ἐν αὑτοῖς τροφῆς· περὶ ὧν ὕστερον
λεκτέον κατὰ τοὺς οἰκείους τῶν λόγων καιρούς. ἡ δὲ
διάκρισις γίγνεται τῶν μορίων οὐχ ὥς τινες ὑπολαμβάνουσι
διὰ τὸ πεφυκέναι φέρεσθαι τὸ ὅμοιον πρὸς τὸ ὅμοιον (πρὸς
15 γὰρ πολλαῖς ἄλλαις αἷς ὁ λόγος οὗτος ἔχει δυσχερείαις
συμβαίνει χωρὶς ἕκαστον γίγνεσθαι τῶν μορίων τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν,
οἷον ὀστᾶ καθ' αὑτὰ καὶ νεῦρα καὶ τὰς σάρκας καθ'
αὑτάς, εἴ τις ἀποδέξαιτο ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν)· ἀλλ' ὅτι τὸ
περίττωμα τὸ τοῦ θήλεος δυνάμει τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν οἷον φύσει τὸ
20 ζῷον καὶ ἔνεστι δυνάμει τὰ μόρια ἐνεργείᾳ δ' οὐθέν, διὰ
ταύτην τὴν αἰτίαν γίγνεται ἕκαστον αὐτῶν, καὶ ὅτι τὸ ποιητικὸν
καὶ τὸ παθητικὸν ὅταν θίγωσιν, ὃν τρόπον ἐστὶ τὸ μὲν
ποιητικὸν τὸ δὲ παθητικόν (τὸν δὲ τρόπον λέγω τὸ ὣς καὶ
οὗ καὶ ὅτε), εὐθὺς τὸ μὲν ποιεῖ τὸ δὲ πάσχει. ὕλην μὲν οὖν
25 παρέχει τὸ θῆλυ, τὴν δ' ἀρχὴν τῆς κινήσεως τὸ ἄρρεν. ὥσπερ
δὲ τὰ ὑπὸ τῆς τέχνης γιγνόμενα γίγνεται διὰ τῶν ὀργάνων—
ἔστι δ' ἀληθέστερον εἰπεῖν διὰ τῆς κινήσεως αὐτῶν· αὕτη δ'
ἐστὶν ἡ ἐνέργεια τῆς τέχνης, ἡ δὲ τέχνη μορφὴ τῶν γιγνομένων
ἐν ἄλλῳ—οὕτως ἡ τῆς θρεπτικῆς ψυχῆς δύναμις, ὥςπερ
30 καὶ ἐν αὐτοῖς τοῖς ζῴοις καὶ τοῖς φυτοῖς ὕστερον ἐκ τῆς
τροφῆς ποιεῖ τὴν αὔξησιν, χρωμένη οἷον ὀργάνοις θερμότητι
καὶ ψυχρότητι (ἐν γὰρ τούτοις ἡ κίνησις ἐκείνης, καὶ λόγῳ
τινὶ ἕκαστον γίγνεται), οὕτω καὶ ἐξ ἀρχῆς συνίστησι τὸ φύσει
γιγνόμενον. ἡ γὰρ αὐτή ἐστιν ὕλη ᾗ αὐξάνεται καὶ ἐξ ἧς
35 συνίσταται τὸ πρῶτον, ὥστε καὶ ἡ ποιοῦσα δύναμις ταὐτὸ
τῷ ἐξ ἀρχῆς· μείζων δὲ αὕτη ἐστίν. εἰ οὖν αὕτη ἐστὶν ἡ θρεπτικὴ
ψυχή, αὕτη ἐστὶ καὶ ἡ γεννῶσα· καὶ τοῦτ' ἔστιν ἡ
1This is plain in the ovipara, for they have their parts differentiated in the egg after separation from the matrix.
Here a difficulty may be raised. If the blood is the nourishment, and if the heart, which first comes into being, already contains blood, and the nourishment comes from outside, whence 5did the first nourishment enter? Perhaps it is not true that all of it comes from outside just as in the seeds of plants there is something of this nature, the substance which at first appears milky, so also in the material of the animal embryo the superfluous matter of which it is formed is its nourishment from the first.
The embryo, then, grows by means of the umbilicus 10in the same way as a plant by its roots, or as animals themselves when separated from the nutriment within the mother, of which we must speak later at the time appropriate for discussing them. But the parts are not differentiated, as some suppose, because like is naturally carried to like. Besides many other difficulties involved in this theory, it results from it that 15the homogeneous parts ought to come into being each one separate from the rest, as bones and sinews by themselves, and flesh by itself, if one should accept this cause. The real cause why each of them comes into being is that the secretion of the female is potentially such as the animal is naturally, and all the parts are potentially present in it, but none actually. It is 20also because when the active and the passive come in contact with each other in that way in which the one is active and the other passive (I mean in the right manner, in the right place, and at the right time), straightway the one acts and the other is acted upon. The female, then, provides matter, the male the principle of motion. And as the products of art are made by 25means of the tools of the artist, or to put it more truly by means of their movement, and this is the activity of the art, and the art is the form of what is made in something else, so is it with the power of the nutritive soul. As later on in the case of mature animals and plants this soul causes growth from the nutriment, using heat and cold as its tools (for in these is 30the movement of the soul), and each thing comes into being in accordance with a certain formula, so also from the beginning does it form the product of nature. For the material by which this latter grows is the same as that from which it is constituted at first; consequently also the power which acts upon it is identical with that which originally generated it; if then 35this acting power is the nutritive soul, this is also the generative soul, and this is the nature of every organism, existing in all animals and plants.
Here a difficulty may be raised. If the blood is the nourishment, and if the heart, which first comes into being, already contains blood, and the nourishment comes from outside, whence 5did the first nourishment enter? Perhaps it is not true that all of it comes from outside just as in the seeds of plants there is something of this nature, the substance which at first appears milky, so also in the material of the animal embryo the superfluous matter of which it is formed is its nourishment from the first.
The embryo, then, grows by means of the umbilicus 10in the same way as a plant by its roots, or as animals themselves when separated from the nutriment within the mother, of which we must speak later at the time appropriate for discussing them. But the parts are not differentiated, as some suppose, because like is naturally carried to like. Besides many other difficulties involved in this theory, it results from it that 15the homogeneous parts ought to come into being each one separate from the rest, as bones and sinews by themselves, and flesh by itself, if one should accept this cause. The real cause why each of them comes into being is that the secretion of the female is potentially such as the animal is naturally, and all the parts are potentially present in it, but none actually. It is 20also because when the active and the passive come in contact with each other in that way in which the one is active and the other passive (I mean in the right manner, in the right place, and at the right time), straightway the one acts and the other is acted upon. The female, then, provides matter, the male the principle of motion. And as the products of art are made by 25means of the tools of the artist, or to put it more truly by means of their movement, and this is the activity of the art, and the art is the form of what is made in something else, so is it with the power of the nutritive soul. As later on in the case of mature animals and plants this soul causes growth from the nutriment, using heat and cold as its tools (for in these is 30the movement of the soul), and each thing comes into being in accordance with a certain formula, so also from the beginning does it form the product of nature. For the material by which this latter grows is the same as that from which it is constituted at first; consequently also the power which acts upon it is identical with that which originally generated it; if then 35this acting power is the nutritive soul, this is also the generative soul, and this is the nature of every organism, existing in all animals and plants.
741a
1 φύσις ἡ ἑκάστου ἐνυπάρχουσα καὶ ἐν φυτοῖς καὶ ἐν ζῴοις
πᾶσιν, τὰ δ' ἄλλα μόρια τῆς ψυχῆς τοῖς μὲν ὑπάρχει
τοῖς δ' οὐχ ὑπάρχει τῶν ζώντων. Ἐν μὲν οὖν τοῖς φυτοῖς οὐ κεχώρισται
τὸ θῆλυ τοῦ ἄρρενος· ἐν δὲ τοῖς ζῴοις ἐν οἷς κεχώρισται
5 προσδεῖται τὸ θῆλυ τοῦ ἄρρενος.
1[But the other parts of the soul exist in some animals, not in others.] In plants, then, the female is not separated from the male, but in those animals in which it is separated the male needs the female besides.
Book 2,Chapter 5 (741a6–741b24)
Καίτοι τις ἀπορήσειεν ἂν διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν· εἴπερ ἔχει τὸ
θῆλυ τὴν αὐτὴν ψυχὴν καὶ ἡ ὕλη τὸ περίττωμα τὸ τοῦ θήλεός
ἐστι, τί προσδεῖται τοῦ ἄρρενος ἀλλ' οὐκ αὐτὸ ἐξ αὑτοῦ
γεννᾷ τὸ θῆλυ; αἴτιον δ' ὅτι διαφέρει τὸ ζῷον τοῦ φυτοῦ αἰσθήσει·
10 ἀδύνατον δὲ πρόσωπον ἢ χεῖρα ἢ σάρκα εἶναι ἢ
ἄλλο τι μόριον μὴ ἐνούσης αἰσθητικῆς ψυχῆς ἢ ἐνεργείᾳ ἢ
δυνάμει καὶ ἤ πῃ ἢ ἁπλῶς· ἔσται γὰρ οἷον νεκρὸς ἢ νεκροῦ
μόριον. εἰ οὖν τὸ ἄρρεν ἐστὶ τὸ τῆς τοιαύτης ποιητικὸν ψυχῆς,
ὅπου κεχώρισται τὸ θῆλυ καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν ἀδύνατον τὸ
15 θῆλυ αὐτὸ ἐξ αὑτοῦ γεννᾶν ζῷον· τὸ γὰρ εἰρημένον ἦν τὸ
ἄρρεν εἶναι· ἐπεὶ ὅτι γ' ἔχει λόγον ἡ λεχθεῖσα ἀπορία
φανερὸν ἐπὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων τῶν τὰ ὑπηνέμια τικτόντων ὅτι
δύναται μέχρι γέ τινος τὸ θῆλυ γεννᾶν. ἔτι δ' ἔχει καὶ
τοῦτο ἀπορίαν πῶς τις αὐτῶν τὰ ᾠὰ φήσει ζῆν· οὔτε γὰρ
20 οὕτως ὡς τὰ γόνιμα ᾠὰ ἐνδέχεται (ἐγίγνετο γὰρ ἂν ἐξ αὐτῶν
ἐνεργείᾳ ἔμψυχον) οὔθ' οὕτως ὥσπερ ξύλον ἢ λίθος. ἔστι γὰρ
καὶ τούτων τῶν ᾠῶν φθορά τις ὡς μετεχόντων τρόπον τινὰ
ζωῆς πρότερον. δῆλον οὖν ὅτι ἔχει τινὰ δυνάμει ψυχήν.
ποίαν οὖν ταύτην; ἀνάγκη δὴ τὴν ἐσχάτην. αὕτη δ' ἐστὶν ἡ
25 θρεπτική· αὕτη γὰρ ὑπάρχει πᾶσιν ὁμοίως ζῴοις τε καὶ
φυτοῖς. διὰ τί οὖν οὐκ ἀποτελεῖ τὰ μόρια καὶ τὸ ζῷον; ὅτι
δεῖ αἰσθητικὴν αὐτὰ ἔχειν ψυχήν· οὐ γάρ ἐστιν ὥσπερ φυτοῦ
τὰ μόρια τῶν ζῴων. διὸ δεῖται τῆς τοῦ ἄρρενος κοινωνίας·
κεχώρισται γὰρ ἐν τούτοις τὸ ἄρρεν. ὅπερ καὶ συμβαίνει· τὰ
30 γὰρ ὑπηνέμια γίγνεται γόνιμα ἐὰν ἔν τινι καιρῷ τὸ ἄρρεν
ἐποχεύσῃ. ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τῆς τούτων αἰτίας ὕστερον διορισθήσεται.
Εἰ δ' ἐστί τι γένος ὃ θῆλυ μέν ἐστιν, ἄρρεν δὲ μὴ
ἔχει κεχωρισμένον, ἐνδέχεται τοῦτο ζῷον ἐξ αὑτοῦ γεννᾶν.
ὅπερ ἀξιοπίστως μὲν οὐ συνῶπται μέχρι γε τοῦ νῦν, ποιεῖ δὲ
35 διστάζειν ἐν τῷ γένει τῷ τῶν ἰχθύων· τῶν γὰρ καλουμένων
ἐρυθρίνων ἄρρην μὲν οὐθεὶς ὦπταί πω, θήλειαι δὲ καὶ κυημάτων
πλήρεις. ἀλλὰ τούτων μὲν οὔπω πεῖραν ἔχομεν ἀξιόπιστον·
οὔτε δὲ θήλεα οὔτε ἄρρενα καὶ ἐν τῷ τῶν ἰχθύων γένει
And yet the question may be raised why it is that, if indeed the female 5possesses the same soul and if it is the secretion of the female which is the material of the embryo, she needs the male besides instead of generating entirely from herself. The reason is that the animal differs from the plant by having sense-perception; if the sensitive soul is not present, either actually or potentially, and either with or without qualification, 10it is impossible for face, hand, flesh, or any other part to exist; it will be no better than a corpse or part of a corpse. If then, when the sexes are separated, it is the male that has the power of making the sensitive soul, it is impossible for the female to generate an animal from itself alone, for the process in question was seen to involve the male quality. 15Certainly that there is a good deal in the difficulty stated is plain in the case of the birds that lay wind-eggs, showing that the female can generate up to a certain point unaided. But this still involves a difficulty; in what way are we to say that their eggs live? It neither possible that they should live in the same way as fertile eggs (for then they 20would produce a chick actually alive), nor yet can they be called eggs only in the sense in which an egg of wood or stone is so called, for the fact that these eggs go bad shows that they previously participate in some way in life. It is plain, then, that they have some soul potentially. What sort of soul will this be? It must be the lowest surely, and this is the 25nutritive, for this exists in all animals and plants alike. Why then does it not perfect the parts and the animal? Because they must have a sensitive soul, for the parts of animals are not like those of a plant. And so the female animal needs the help of the male, for in these animals we are speaking of the male is separate. This is exactly what we find, for 30the wind-eggs become fertile if the male tread the female in a certain space of time. About the cause of these things, however, we shall enter into detail later.
If there is any kind of animal which is female and has no male separate from it, it is possible that this may generate a young one from itself without copulation. No instance of this worthy of credit 35has been observed up to the present at any rate, but one case in the class of fishes makes us hesitate. No male of the so-called erythrinus has ever yet been seen, but females, and specimens full of roe, have been seen.
If there is any kind of animal which is female and has no male separate from it, it is possible that this may generate a young one from itself without copulation. No instance of this worthy of credit 35has been observed up to the present at any rate, but one case in the class of fishes makes us hesitate. No male of the so-called erythrinus has ever yet been seen, but females, and specimens full of roe, have been seen.
741b
1 ἐστίν, οἷον αἵ τ' ἐγχέλεις καὶ γένος τι κεστρέων περὶ τοὺς
τελματιαίους ποταμούς. ἐν ὅσοις δὲ κεχώρισται τὸ θῆλυ καὶ
τὸ ἄρρεν ἀδύνατον αὐτὸ καθ' αὑτὸ τὸ θῆλυ γεννᾶν εἰς τέλος·
τὸ γὰρ ἄρρεν μάτην ἂν ἦν, ἡ δὲ φύσις οὐδὲν ποιεῖ
5 μάτην. διόπερ ἐν τοῖς τοιούτοις ἀεὶ τὸ ἄρρεν ἐπιτελεῖ τὴν
γένεσιν. ἐμποιεῖ γὰρ τοῦτο τὴν αἰσθητικὴν ψυχὴν ἢ δι' αὑτοῦ
ἢ διὰ τῆς γονῆς. Ἐνυπαρχόντων δ' ἐν τῇ ὕλῃ δυνάμει
τῶν μορίων, ὅταν ἀρχὴ γένηται κινήσεως ὥσπερ ἐν τοῖς
αὐτομάτοις θαύμασι συνείρεται τὸ ἐφεξῆς· καὶ ὃ βούλονται
10 λέγειν τινὲς τῶν φυσικῶν, τὸ "φέρεσθαι εἰς τὸ ὅμοιον"—
λεκτέον οὐχ ὡς τόπον μεταβάλλοντα τὰ μόρια κινεῖσθαι
ἀλλὰ μένοντα καὶ ἀλλοιούμενα μαλακότητι καὶ σκληρότητι
καὶ χρώμασι καὶ ταῖς ἄλλαις ταῖς τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν διαφοραῖς,
γιγνόμενα ἐνεργείᾳ ἃ ὑπῆρχεν ὄντα δυνάμει πρότερον.
15 Γίγνεται δὲ πρῶτον ἡ ἀρχή. αὕτη δ' ἐστὶν ἡ καρδία
τοῖς ἐναίμοις, τοῖς δ' ἄλλοις τὸ ἀνάλογον, ὥσπερ εἴρηται
πολλάκις. καὶ τοῦτο φανερὸν οὐ μόνον κατὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν ὅτι
γίγνεται πρῶτον ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ τὴν τελευτήν· ἀπολείπει
γὰρ τὸ ζῆν ἐντεῦθεν τελευταῖον, —συμβαίνει δ' ἐπὶ πάντων
20 τὸ τελευταῖον γενόμενον πρῶτον ἀπολείπειν τὸ δὲ πρῶτον
τελευταῖον, ὥσπερ τῆς φύσεως διαυλοδρομούσης καὶ ἀνελιττομένης
ἐπὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν ὅθεν ἦλθεν. ἔστι γὰρ ἡ μὲν γένεσις
ἐκ τοῦ μὴ ὄντος εἰς τὸ ὄν, ἡ δὲ φθορὰ ἐκ τοῦ ὄντος πάλιν
εἰς τὸ μὴ ὄν.
1Of this, however, we have as yet no proof worthy of credit. Again, some members of the class of fishes are neither male nor female, as eels and a kind of mullets found in stagnant waters. But whenever the sexes are separate the female cannot generate perfectly by herself alone, for then the male would 5exist in vain, and Nature makes nothing in vain. Hence in such animals the male always perfects the work of generation, for he imparts the sensitive soul, either by means of the semen or without it. Now the parts of the embryo already exist potentially in the material, and so when once the principle of movement has been imparted to them they develop in a chain one after 10another, as the wheels are moved one by another in the automatic machines. When some of the natural philosophers say that like is brought to like, this must be understood, not in the sense that the parts are moved as changing place, but that they stay where they are and the movement is a change of quality (such as softness, hardness, colour, and the other differences of the 15homogeneous parts); thus they become in actuality what they previously were in potentiality. And what comes into being first is the first principle; this is the heart in the sanguinea and its analogue in the rest, as has been often said already. This is plain not only to the senses (that it is first to come into being), but also in view of its end; for life fails in the heart 20last of all, and it happens in all cases that what comes into being last fails first, and the first last, Nature running a double course, so to say, and turning back to the point from whence she started. For the process of becoming is from the non-existent to the existent, and that of perishing is back again from the existent to the non-existent.
Book 2,Chapter 6 (741b25–745b20)
25 Γίνεται δὲ μετὰ τὴν ἀρχήν, ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη, τὰ ἐντὸς
πρότερον τῶν ἐκτός. φαίνεται δὲ πρότερα τὰ μέγεθος ἔχοντα
τῶν ἐλαττόνων, οὐδ' ἔνια γιγνόμενα πρότερον. πρῶτον δὲ
τὰ ἄνω διαρθροῦται τοῦ διαζώματος καὶ διαφέρει μεγέθει·
τὸ δὲ κάτω καὶ ἔλαττον καὶ ἀδιοριστότερον. καὶ τοῦτο γίγνεται
30 ἐν πᾶσιν ὅσοις τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω διώρισται, πλὴν ἐν
τοῖς ἐντόμοις· τούτων δ' ἐν τοῖς σκωληκοτοκουμένοις ἐπὶ τὸ
ἄνω ἡ αὔξησις γίγνεται· τὸ γὰρ ἄνω ἐξ ὑπαρχῆς ἔλαττον.
ἀδιόριστον δὲ καὶ τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω τοῖς μαλακίοις τῶν
πορευτικῶν μόνοις. τὸ δὲ λεχθὲν συμβαίνει καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν
35 φυτῶν, τὸ προτερεῖν τῇ γενέσει τὸ ἄνω κύτος τοῦ κάτωθεν·
τὰς γὰρ ῥίζας πρότερον ἀφιᾶσι τὰ σπέρματα τῶν πτόρθων.
Διορίζεται δὲ τὰ μέρη τῶν ζῴων πνεύματι, οὐ μέντοι
οὔτε τῷ τῆς γεννώσης οὔτε τῷ αὐτοῦ καθάπερ τινὲς τῶν φυσικῶν
After this, as said already, 25the internal parts come into being before the external. The greater become visible before the less, even if some of them do not come into being before them. First the parts above the hypozoma are differentiated and are superior in size; the part below is both smaller and less differentiated. This happens in all animals in which exists the distinction of upper and lower, except 30in the insects; the growth of those that produce a scolex is towards the upper part, for this is smaller in the beginning. The cephalopoda are the only locomotive animals in which the distinction of upper and lower does not exist.
What has been said applies to plants also, that the upper portion is earlier in development than the lower, for the roots push out from the seed 35before the shoots.
The agency by which the parts of animals are differentiated is air, not however that of the mother nor yet of the embryo itself, as some of the physicists say. This is manifest in birds, fishes, and insects.
What has been said applies to plants also, that the upper portion is earlier in development than the lower, for the roots push out from the seed 35before the shoots.
The agency by which the parts of animals are differentiated is air, not however that of the mother nor yet of the embryo itself, as some of the physicists say. This is manifest in birds, fishes, and insects.
742a
1 φασιν. φανερὸν δὲ τοῦτο ἐπὶ τῶν ὀρνίθων καὶ τῶν
ἰχθύων καὶ τῶν ἐντόμων· τὰ μὲν γὰρ χωρισθέντα τῆς γεννώσης
γίγνεται ἐξ ᾠοῦ ἐν ᾧ λαμβάνει τὴν διάρθρωσιν, τὰ
δ' ὅλως οὐκ ἀναπνεῖ τῶν ζῴων, σκωληκοτοκεῖται δὲ καὶ
5 ᾠοτοκεῖται· τὰ δ' ἀναπνέοντα καὶ ἐν τῇ μήτρᾳ λαμβάνοντα
τὴν διάρθρωσιν οὐκ ἀναπνεῖ πρὶν ἢ ὁ πνεύμων λάβῃ τέλος·
διαρθροῦται δὲ καὶ οὗτος καὶ τὰ ἔμπροσθεν μόρια πρὶν ἀναπνεῖν.
ἔτι δ' ὅσα πολυσχιδῆ τῶν τετραπόδων, οἷον κύων
λέων λύκος ἀλώπηξ θώς, πάντα τυφλὰ γεννᾷ, καὶ διίσταται
10 τὸ βλέφαρον γενομένων ὕστερον. ὥστε δῆλον ὅτι τὸν αὐτὸν
τρόπον καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις πᾶσι καθάπερ καὶ τὸ ποιὸν
καὶ τὸ ποσὸν γίγνεται δυνάμει προϋπάρχον, ἐνεργείᾳ δ' ὕστερον,
ὑπὸ τῶν αὐτῶν αἰτίων ὑφ' ὧνπερ καὶ τὸ ποιὸν διορίζεται—καὶ
γίγνεται δύο ἐξ ἑνός. πνεῦμα δ' ὑπάρχειν ἀναγκαῖον
15 ὅτι ὑγρὸν καὶ θερμόν, τοῦ μὲν ποιοῦντος τοῦ δὲ πάσχοντος.
Τῶν δ' ἀρχαίων τινὲς φυσιολόγων τί μετὰ τί
γίγνεται τῶν μορίων ἐπειράθησαν λέγειν, οὐ λίαν ἐμπειρικῶς
ἔχοντες τῶν συμβαινόντων. τῶν γὰρ μορίων ὥσπερ καὶ
ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων πέφυκεν ἕτερον ἑτέρου πρότερον. τὸ δὲ πρότερον
20 ἤδη πολλαχῶς ἐστιν· τό τε γὰρ οὗ ἕνεκα καὶ τὸ τούτου
ἕνεκα διαφέρει, καὶ τὸ μὲν τῇ γενέσει πρότερον αὐτῶν ἐστι
τὸ δὲ τῇ οὐσίᾳ. δύο δὲ διαφορὰς ἔχει καὶ τὸ τούτου ἕνεκα· τὸ
μὲν γάρ ἐστιν ὅθεν ἡ κίνησις, τὸ δὲ ᾧ χρῆται τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα.
λέγω δ' οἷον τό τε γεννητικὸν καὶ τὸ ὀργανικὸν τῷ γεννωμένῳ·
25 τούτων γὰρ τὸ μὲν ὑπάρχειν δεῖ πρότερον, τὸ ποιητικόν,
οἷον τὸ διδάξαν τοῦ μανθάνοντος, τοὺς δ' αὐλοὺς ὕστερον τοῦ
μανθάνοντος αὐλεῖν· περίεργον γὰρ μὴ ἐπισταμένοις αὐλεῖν
ὑπάρχειν αὐλούς· τριῶν δ' ὄντων—ἑνὸς μὲν τοῦ τέλους ὃ λέγομεν
εἶναι οὗ ἕνεκα, δευτέρου δὲ τῶν τούτου ἕνεκα τῆς ἀρχῆς
30 τῆς κινητικῆς καὶ γεννητικῆς (τὸ γὰρ ποιητικὸν καὶ γεννητικόν,
ᾗ τοιαῦτα, πρὸς τὸ ποιούμενόν ἐστι καὶ γεννώμενον),
τρίτου δὲ τοῦ χρησίμου καὶ ᾧ χρῆται τὸ τέλος—πρῶτον μὲν
ὑπάρχειν ἀναγκαῖόν τι μόριον ἐν ᾧ ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως
(καὶ γὰρ εὐθὺς τοῦτο τὸ μόριόν ἐστι τοῦ τέλους ἓν καὶ κυριώτατον),
35 ἔπειτα μετὰ τοῦτο τὸ ὅλον καὶ τὸ τέλος, τρίτον δὲ καὶ
τελευταῖον τὰ ὀργανικὰ τούτοις μέρη πρὸς ἐνίας χρήσεις.
ὥστ' εἴ τι τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν ὅπερ ἀναγκαῖον ὑπάρχειν ἐν τοῖς
1For some of these are separated from the mother and produced from an egg, within which the differentiation takes place; other animals do not breathe at all, but are produced as a scolex or an egg; those which do breathe and whose parts are differentiated within the mother’s uterus yet do not 5breathe until the lung is perfected, and the lung and the preceding parts are differentiated before they breathe. Moreover, all polydactylous quadrupeds, as dog, lion, wolf, fox, jackal, produce their young blind, and the eyelids do not separate till after birth. Manifestly the same holds also in all the other parts; as the qualitative, so also the quantitative 10differentia comes into being, pre-existing potentially but being actualized later by the same causes by which the qualitative distinction is produced, and so the eyelids become two instead of one. Of course air must be present, because heat and moisture are present, the former acting and the latter being acted upon.
Some of the ancient nature-philosolphers made an 15attempt to state which part comes into being after which, but were not sufficiently acquainted with the facts. It is with the parts as with other things; one naturally exists prior to another. But the word ‘prior’ is used in more senses than one. For there is a difference between the end or final cause and that which exists for the sake of it; the latter is prior 20in order of development, the former is prior in reality. Again, that which exists for the sake of the end admits of division into two classes, (1) the origin of the movement, (2) that which is used by the end; I mean, for instance, (1) that which can generate, (2) that which serves as an instrument to what is generated, for the one of these, that which makes, must 25exist first, as the teacher before the learner, and the other later, as the pipes are later than he who learns to play upon them, for it is superfluous that men who do not know how to play should have pipes. Thus there are three things: first, the end, by which we mean that for the sake of which something else exists; secondly, the principle of movement and of 30generation, existing for the sake of the end (for that which can make and generate, considered simply as such, exists only in relation to what is made and generated); thirdly, the useful, that is to say what the end uses. Accordingly, there must first exist some part in which is the principle of movement (I say a part because this is from the first one part of the 35end and the most important part too); next after this the whole and the end; thirdly and lastly, the organic parts serving these for certain uses.
Some of the ancient nature-philosolphers made an 15attempt to state which part comes into being after which, but were not sufficiently acquainted with the facts. It is with the parts as with other things; one naturally exists prior to another. But the word ‘prior’ is used in more senses than one. For there is a difference between the end or final cause and that which exists for the sake of it; the latter is prior 20in order of development, the former is prior in reality. Again, that which exists for the sake of the end admits of division into two classes, (1) the origin of the movement, (2) that which is used by the end; I mean, for instance, (1) that which can generate, (2) that which serves as an instrument to what is generated, for the one of these, that which makes, must 25exist first, as the teacher before the learner, and the other later, as the pipes are later than he who learns to play upon them, for it is superfluous that men who do not know how to play should have pipes. Thus there are three things: first, the end, by which we mean that for the sake of which something else exists; secondly, the principle of movement and of 30generation, existing for the sake of the end (for that which can make and generate, considered simply as such, exists only in relation to what is made and generated); thirdly, the useful, that is to say what the end uses. Accordingly, there must first exist some part in which is the principle of movement (I say a part because this is from the first one part of the 35end and the most important part too); next after this the whole and the end; thirdly and lastly, the organic parts serving these for certain uses.
742b
1 ζῴοις, τὸ πάσης ἔχον τῆς φύσεως ἀρχὴν καὶ τέλος, τοῦτο
γίγνεσθαι πρῶτον ἀναγκαῖον, ᾗ μὲν κινητικὸν πρῶτον, ᾗ δὲ
μόριον τοῦ τέλους μετὰ τοῦ ὅλου. ὥστε τῶν μορίων τῶν ὀργανικῶν
ὅσα μέν ἐστι γεννητικὰ τὴν φύσιν, ἀεὶ πρότερον
5 δεῖ ὑπάρχειν αὐτά (ἄλλου γὰρ ἕνεκά ἐστιν ὡς ἀρχή),
ὅσα δὲ μὴ τοιαῦτα τῶν ἄλλου ἕνεκα ὕστερον. διὸ οὐ ῥᾴδιον
διελεῖν πότερα πρότερα τῶν μορίων, ὅσα ἄλλου ἕνεκα ἢ
οὗ ἕνεκα ταῦτα. παρεμπίπτει γὰρ τὰ κινητικὰ τῶν μορίων
πρότερον ὄντα τῇ γενέσει τοῦ τέλους, τὰ δὲ κινητικὰ πρὸς
10 τὰ ὀργανικὰ διελεῖν οὐ ῥᾴδιον. καίτοι κατὰ ταύτην τὴν μέθοδον
δεῖ ζητεῖν τί γίγνεται μετὰ τί· τὸ γὰρ τέλος ἐνίων
μὲν ὕστερον ἐνίων δὲ πρότερον. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο πρῶτον μὲν
τὸ ἔχον τὴν ἀρχὴν γίγνεται μόριον, εἶτ' ἐχόμενον τὸ ἄνω
κύτος. διὸ τὰ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν καὶ τὰ ὄμματα μέγιστα
15 κατ' ἀρχὰς φαίνεται τοῖς ἐμβρύοις, τὰ δὲ κάτω τοῦ ὀμφαλοῦ,
οἷον τὰ κῶλα, μικρά. τοῦ γὰρ ἄνω τὰ κάτω ἕνεκεν
καὶ οὔτε μόρια τοῦ τέλους οὔτε γεννητικὰ αὐτοῦ. Οὐ καλῶς
δὲ λέγουσιν οὐδὲ τοῦ διὰ τί τὴν ἀνάγκην ὅσοι λέγουσι
ὅτι οὕτως ἀεὶ γίγνεται, καὶ ταύτην εἶναι νομίζουσιν ἀρχὴν ἐν
20 αὐτοῖς, ὥσπερ Δημόκριτος ὁ Ἀβδηρίτης, ὅτι τοῦ μὲν ἀεὶ
καὶ ἀπείρου οὐκ ἔστιν ἀρχή, τὸ δὲ διὰ τί ἀρχή, τὸ δ' ἀεὶ
ἄπειρον, ὥστε τὸ ἐρωτᾶν τὸ διὰ τί περὶ τῶν τοιούτων τινὸς
τὸ ζητεῖν εἶναί φησι τοῦ ἀπείρου ἀρχήν. καίτοι κατὰ τοῦτον
τὸν λόγον καθ' ὃν ἀξιοῦσι τὸ διὰ τί μὴ ζητεῖν, οὐθενὸς
25 ἀπόδειξις ἔσται τῶν ἀϊδίων· φαίνεται δ' οὖσα πολλῶν, τῶν
μὲν γιγνομένων ἀεὶ τῶν δ' ὄντων, ἐπεὶ καὶ τὸ τρίγωνον
ἔχειν δυσὶν ὀρθαῖς ἴσας ἀεὶ καὶ τὸ τὴν διάμετρον ἀσύμμετρον
εἶναι πρὸς τὴν πλευρὰν ἀΐδιον, ἀλλ' ὅμως ἐστὶν αὐτῶν
αἴτιόν τι καὶ ἀπόδειξις. τὸ μὲν οὖν μὴ πάντων ἀξιοῦν ζητεῖν
30 ἀρχὴν λέγεται καλῶς, τὸ δὲ τῶν ὄντων ἀεὶ καὶ γιγνομένων
πάντων οὐ καλῶς, ἀλλ' ὅσαι τῶν ἀϊδίων ἀρχαὶ
τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι· τῆς γὰρ ἀρχῆς ἄλλη γνῶσις καὶ οὐκ
ἀπόδειξις. ἀρχὴ δ' ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἀκινήτοις τὸ τί ἐστιν, ἐν δὲ
τοῖς γιγνομένοις ἤδη πλείους—τρόπον δ' ἄλλον καὶ οὐ πᾶσαι
35 τὸν αὐτόν—ὧν μία τὸν ἀριθμὸν ὅθεν ἡ κίνησίς ἐστιν. διὸ
πάντα τὰ ἔναιμα καρδίαν ἔχει πρῶτον ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη
κατ' ἀρχάς· ἐν δὲ τοῖς ἄλλοις τὸ ἀνάλογον γίγνεται τῇ
1Hence if there is anything of this sort which must exist in animals, containing the principle and end of all their nature, this must be the first to come into being — first, that is, considered as the moving power, but simultaneous with the whole embryo if considered as a part of the end. Therefore all the 5organic parts whose nature is to bring others into being must always themselves exist before them, for they are for the sake of something else, as the beginning for the sake of the end; all those parts which are for the sake of something else but are not of the nature of beginnings must come into being later. So it is not easy to distinguish which of the parts are prior, those which 10are for the sake of another or that for the sake of which are the former. For the parts which cause the movement, being prior to the end in order of development, come in to cause confusion, and it is not easy to distinguish these as compared with the organic parts. And yet it is in accordance with this method that we must inquire what comes into being after what; for the end is 15later than some parts and earlier than others. And for this reason that part which contains the first principle comes into being first, next to this the upper half of the body. This is why the parts about the head, and particularly the eyes, appear largest in the embryo at an early stage, while the parts below the umbilicus, as the legs, are small; for the lower parts are for the 20sake of the upper, and are neither parts of the end nor able to form it.
But they do not say well nor do they assign a necessary cause who say simply that ‘it always happens so’, and imagine that this is a first principle in these cases. Thus Democritus of Abdera says that ‘there is no beginning of the infinite; now the cause is a beginning, and the eternal is infinite; in consequence, 25to ask the cause of anything of this kind is to seek for a beginning of the infinite’. Yet according to this argument, which forbids us to seek the cause, there will be no proof of any eternal truth whatever; but we see that there is a proof of many such, whether by ‘eternal’ we mean what always happens or what exists eternally; it is an eternal truth that the angles of a triangle 30are always equal to two right angles, or that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with the side, and nevertheless a cause and a proof can be given for these truths. While, then, it is well said that we must not take on us to seek a beginning (or first principle) of all things, yet this is not well said of all things whatever that always are or always happen, but only of 35those which really are first principles of the eternal things; for it is by another method, not by proof, that we acquire knowledge of the first principle.
But they do not say well nor do they assign a necessary cause who say simply that ‘it always happens so’, and imagine that this is a first principle in these cases. Thus Democritus of Abdera says that ‘there is no beginning of the infinite; now the cause is a beginning, and the eternal is infinite; in consequence, 25to ask the cause of anything of this kind is to seek for a beginning of the infinite’. Yet according to this argument, which forbids us to seek the cause, there will be no proof of any eternal truth whatever; but we see that there is a proof of many such, whether by ‘eternal’ we mean what always happens or what exists eternally; it is an eternal truth that the angles of a triangle 30are always equal to two right angles, or that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with the side, and nevertheless a cause and a proof can be given for these truths. While, then, it is well said that we must not take on us to seek a beginning (or first principle) of all things, yet this is not well said of all things whatever that always are or always happen, but only of 35those which really are first principles of the eternal things; for it is by another method, not by proof, that we acquire knowledge of the first principle.
743a
1 καρδίᾳ πρῶτον. Ἐκ δὲ τῆς καρδίας αἱ φλέβες διατεταμέναι,
καθάπερ οἱ τοὺς κανάβους γράφοντες ἐν τοῖς τοίχοις· τὰ
γὰρ μέρη περὶ ταύτας ἐστίν, ἅτε γιγνόμενα ἐκ τούτων. ἡ δὲ
γένεσίς ἐστιν τῶν ὁμοιομερῶν ὑπὸ ψύξεως καὶ θερμότητος·
5 συνίσταται γὰρ καὶ πήγνυται τὰ μὲν ψυχρῷ τὰ δὲ θερμῷ.
περὶ δὲ τῆς τούτων διαφορᾶς εἴρηται πρότερον ἐν ἑτέροις,
ποῖα λυτὰ ὑγρῷ καὶ πυρὶ καὶ ποῖα ἄλυτα ὑγρῷ καὶ ἄτηκτα
πυρί. διὰ μὲν οὖν τῶν φλεβῶν καὶ τῶν ἐν ἑκάστοις
πόρων διαπιδύουσα ἡ τροφή, καθάπερ ἐν τοῖς ὠμοῖς κεραμίοις
10 τὸ ὕδωρ, γίγνονται σάρκες ἢ τὸ ταύταις ἀνάλογον ὑπὸ
τοῦ ψυχροῦ συνιστάμεναι, διὸ καὶ λύονται ὑπὸ πυρός. ὅσα
δὲ γεηρὰ λίαν τῶν ἀνατελλόντων, ὀλίγην ἔχοντα ὑγρότητα
καὶ θερμότητα, ταῦτα δὲ ψυχόμενα ἐξατμίζοντος τοῦ ὑγροῦ
μετὰ τοῦ θερμοῦ γίγνεται σκληρὰ καὶ γεώδη τὴν μορφήν, οἷον
15 ὄνυχες καὶ κέρατα καὶ ὁπλαὶ καὶ ῥύγχη· διὸ μαλάττεται
μὲν πυρί, τήκεται δ' οὐθέν, ἀλλ' ἔνια τοῖς ὑγροῖς, οἷον τὰ
κελύφη τῶν ᾠῶν. Ὑπὸ δὲ τῆς ἐντὸς θερμότητος τά τε νεῦρα
καὶ τὰ ὀστᾶ γίγνεται ξηραινομένης τῆς ὑγρότητος. διὸ καὶ
ἄλυτά ἐστι τὰ ὀστᾶ ὑπὸ τοῦ πυρὸς καθάπερ κέραμος· οἷον
20 γὰρ ἐν καμίνῳ ὠπτημένα ἐστὶν ὑπὸ τῆς ἐν τῇ γενέσει θερμότητος.
αὕτη δὲ οὔτε ὅ τι ἔτυχε ποιεῖ σάρκα ἢ ὀστοῦν οὔθ' ὅπου ἔτυχεν
οὔθ' ὁπότ' ἔτυχεν, ἀλλὰ τὸ πεφυκὸς καὶ οὗ πέφυκε καὶ ὅτε πέφυκεν.
οὔτε γὰρ τὸ δυνάμει ὂν ὑπὸ τοῦ μὴ τὴν ἐνέργειαν ἔχοντος
κινητικοῦ ἔσται, οὔτε τὸ τὴν ἐνέργειαν ἔχον ποιήσει ἐκ τοῦ τυχόντος,
25 ὥσπερ οὔτε κιβωτὸν μὴ ἐκ ξύλου ὁ τέκτων ποιήσειεν
ἄν, οὔτ' ἄνευ τούτου κιβωτὸς ἔσται ἐκ τῶν ξύλων. Ἡ δὲ θερμότης
ἐνυπάρχει ἐν τῷ σπερματικῷ περιττώματι τοσαύτην
καὶ τοιαύτην ἔχουσα τὴν κίνησιν καὶ τὴν ἐνέργειαν ὅση σύμμετρος
εἰς ἕκαστον τῶν μορίων. καθ' ὅσον δ' ἂν ἐλλείπῃ ἢ
30 ὑπερβάλλῃ ἢ χεῖρον ἀποτελεῖ ἢ ἀνάπηρον τὸ γιγνόμενον,
παραπλησίως τοῖς ἔξω συνισταμένοις διὰ τῆς ἑψήσεως πρὸς
τροφῆς ἀπόλαυσιν ἤ τινα ἄλλην ἐργασίαν. ἀλλ' ἐνταῦθα
μὲν ἡμεῖς τὴν τῆς θερμότητος συμμετρίαν εἰς τὴν κίνησιν
παρασκευάζομεν, ἐκεῖ δὲ δίδωσιν ἡ φύσις ἡ τοῦ γεννῶντος.
35 τοῖς δὲ αὐτομάτως γιγνομένοις ἡ τῆς ὥρας αἰτία κίνησις καὶ
θερμότης. Ἡ δὲ ψύξις στέρησις θερμότητός ἐστιν. χρῆται δ'
ἀμφοτέροις ἡ φύσις ἔχουσι μὲν δύναμιν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ὥστε
1Now in that which is immovable and unchanging the first principle is simply the essence of the thing, but when we come to those things which come into being the principles are more than one, varying in kind and not all of the same kind; one of this number is the principle 5of movement, and therefore in all the sanguinea the heart is formed first, as was said at the beginning, and in the other animals that which is analogous to the heart.
From the heart the blood-vessels extend throughout the body as in the anatomical diagrams which are represented on the wall, for the parts lie round these because they are formed 10out of them. The homogeneous parts are formed by heat and cold, for some are put together and solidified by the one and some by the other. The difference between these has already been discussed elsewhere, and it has been stated what kinds of things are soluble by liquid and fire, and what are not soluble by liquid and cannot be melted 15by fire. The nutriment then oozes through the blood-vessels and the passages in each of the parts, like water in unbaked pottery, and thus is formed the flesh or its analogues, being solidified by cold, which is why it is also dissolved by fire. But all the particles given off which are too earthy, having but little moisture and heat, cool as 20the moisture evaporates along with the heat; so they become hard and earthy in character, as nails, horns, hoofs, and beaks, and therefore they are softened by fire but none of them is melted by it, while some of them, as egg-shells, are soluble in liquids. The sinews and bones are formed by the internal heat as the moisture dries, and hence 25the bones are insoluble by fire like pottery, for like it they have been as it were baked in an oven by the heat in the process of development. But it is not anything whatever that is made into flesh or bone by the heat, but only something naturally fitted for the purpose; nor is it made in any place or time whatever, but only in a place 30and time naturally so fitted. For neither will that which exists potentially be made except by that moving agent which possesses the actuality, nor will that which possesses the actuality make anything whatever; the carpenter would not make a box except out of wood, nor will a box be made out of the wood without the carpenter. The heat exists 35in the seminal secretion, and the movement and activity in it is sufficient in kind and in quantity to correspond to each of the parts.
From the heart the blood-vessels extend throughout the body as in the anatomical diagrams which are represented on the wall, for the parts lie round these because they are formed 10out of them. The homogeneous parts are formed by heat and cold, for some are put together and solidified by the one and some by the other. The difference between these has already been discussed elsewhere, and it has been stated what kinds of things are soluble by liquid and fire, and what are not soluble by liquid and cannot be melted 15by fire. The nutriment then oozes through the blood-vessels and the passages in each of the parts, like water in unbaked pottery, and thus is formed the flesh or its analogues, being solidified by cold, which is why it is also dissolved by fire. But all the particles given off which are too earthy, having but little moisture and heat, cool as 20the moisture evaporates along with the heat; so they become hard and earthy in character, as nails, horns, hoofs, and beaks, and therefore they are softened by fire but none of them is melted by it, while some of them, as egg-shells, are soluble in liquids. The sinews and bones are formed by the internal heat as the moisture dries, and hence 25the bones are insoluble by fire like pottery, for like it they have been as it were baked in an oven by the heat in the process of development. But it is not anything whatever that is made into flesh or bone by the heat, but only something naturally fitted for the purpose; nor is it made in any place or time whatever, but only in a place 30and time naturally so fitted. For neither will that which exists potentially be made except by that moving agent which possesses the actuality, nor will that which possesses the actuality make anything whatever; the carpenter would not make a box except out of wood, nor will a box be made out of the wood without the carpenter. The heat exists 35in the seminal secretion, and the movement and activity in it is sufficient in kind and in quantity to correspond to each of the parts.
743b
1 τὸ μὲν τοδὶ τὸ δὲ τοδὶ ποιεῖν, ἐν μέντοι τοῖς γιγνομένοις ἕνεκά
τινος συμβαίνει τὸ μὲν ψύχειν αὐτῶν τὸ δὲ θερμαίνειν καὶ
γίγνεσθαι τῶν μορίων ἕκαστον, τὴν μὲν σάρκα μαλακὴν τῇ
μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ποιούντων τοιαύτην τῇ δ' ἕνεκά τινος, τὸ δὲ
5 νεῦρον ξηρὸν καὶ ἑλκτὸν τὸ δ' ὀστοῦν ξηρὸν καὶ θραυστόν. Τὸ
δὲ δέρμα ξηραινομένης τῆς σαρκὸς γίγνεται καθάπερ ἐπὶ
τοῖς ἑψήμασιν ἡ καλουμένη γραῦς. οὐ μόνον δὲ διὰ τὸ ἔσχατον
συμβαίνει αὐτοῦ ἡ γένεσις ἀλλὰ καὶ διότι ἐπιπολάζει
τὸ γλίσχρον διὰ τὸ μὴ δύνασθαι ἐξατμίζειν. ἐν μὲν οὖν τοῖς
10 ἄλλοις αὐχμηρὸν τὸ γλίσχρον (διὸ ὀστρακόδερμα καὶ μαλακόστρακα
τὰ ἔσχατά ἐστι τῶν ἀναίμων ζῴων), ἐν δὲ τοῖς
ἐναίμοις τὸ γλίσχρον λιπαρώτερόν ἐστιν. καὶ τούτων ὅσα μὴ
γεώδη τὴν φύσιν ἔχει λίαν, ἀθροίζεται τὸ πιμελῶδες ὑπὸ
τὴν τοῦ δέρματος σκέπην, ὡς τοῦ δέρματος γιγνομένου ἐκ τῆς
15 τοιαύτης γλισχρότητος· ἔχει γάρ τινα γλισχρότητα τὸ λιπαρόν.
πάντα δὲ ταῦτα, καθάπερ εἴπομεν, λεκτέον γίγνεσθαι
τῇ μὲν ἐξ ἀνάγκης τῇ δ' οὐκ ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀλλ' ἕνεκά
τινος. Πρῶτον μὲν οὖν τὸ ἄνω κύτος ἀφορίζεται κατὰ τὴν
γένεσιν, τὸ δὲ κάτω προϊόντος τοῦ χρόνου λαμβάνει τὴν αὔξησιν
20 ἐν τοῖς ἐναίμοις. ἅπαντα δὲ ταῖς περιγραφαῖς διορίζεται
πρότερον, ὕστερον δὲ λαμβάνει τὰ χρώματα καὶ τὰς
μαλακότητας καὶ τὰς σκληρότητας, ἀτεχνῶς ὥσπερ ἂν ὑπὸ
ζωγράφου τῆς φύσεως δημιουργούμενα· καὶ γὰρ οἱ γραφεῖς
ὑπογράψαντες ταῖς γραμμαῖς οὕτως ἐναλείφουσι τοῖς χρώμασι
25 τὸ ζῷον. Διὰ μὲν οὖν τὸ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τῶν
αἰσθήσεων εἶναι καὶ τοῦ ζῴου παντὸς αὕτη γίγνεται πρῶτον,
—διὰ δὲ τὴν θερμότητα τὴν ταύτης, ᾗ τελευτῶσιν αἱ φλέβες
ἄνω, τὸ ψυχρὸν συνίστησιν ἀντίστροφον τῇ θερμότητι τῇ περὶ
τὴν καρδίαν τὸν ἐγκέφαλον. διόπερ τὰ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν
30 λαμβάνει συνεχῆ τὴν γένεσιν μετὰ τὴν καρδίαν, καὶ μεγέθει
τῶν ἄλλων διαφέρει· πολὺς γὰρ καὶ ὑγρὸς ἐξ ἀρχῆς
ὁ ἐγκέφαλος. Ἔχει δ' ἀπορίαν τὸ περὶ τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς συμβαῖνον
τῶν ζῴων. μέγιστοι μὲν γὰρ ἐξ ἀρχῆς φαίνονται καὶ
πεζοῖς καὶ πλωτοῖς καὶ πτηνοῖς, τελευταῖοι δὲ συνίστανται τῶν
35 μορίων· ἐν τῷ μεταξὺ γὰρ χρόνῳ συμπίπτουσιν. αἴτιον δ'
ὅτι τὸ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν αἰσθητήριόν ἐστι μέν, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ
ἄλλα αἰσθητήρια, ἐπὶ πόρων· ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν τῆς ἁφῆς καὶ
1In so far as there is any deficiency or excess, the resulting product is in worse condition or physically defective, in like manner as in the case of external substances which are thickened by boiling that they may be more palatable or for any other purpose. But in the latter case it is we 5who apply the heat in due measure for the motion required; in the former it is the nature of the male parent that gives it, or with animals spontaneously generated it is the movement and heat imparted by the right season of the year that it is the cause.
Cooling, again, is mere deprivation of heat. Nature makes use of both; they have of necessity the power of 10bringing about different results, but in the development of the embryo we find that the one cools and the other heats for some definite purpose, and so each of the parts is formed; thus it is in one sense by necessity, in another for a final cause, that they make the flesh soft, the sinews solid and elastic, the bones solid and brittle. The skin, again, is formed 15by the drying of the flesh, like the scum upon boiled substances; it is so formed not only because it is on the outside, but also because what is glutinous, being unable to evaporate, remains on the surface. While in other animals the glutinous is dry, for which reason the covering of the invertebrates is testaceous or crustaceous, in the vertebrates it is rather 20of the nature of fat. In all of these which are not of too earthy a nature the fat is collected under the covering of the skin, a fact which points to the skin being formed out of such a glutinous substance, for fat is somewhat glutinous. As we said, all these things must be understood to be formed in one sense of necessity, but in another sense not of necessity 25but for a final cause.
The upper half of the body, then, is first marked out in the order of development; as time goes on the lower also reaches its full size in the sanguinea. All the parts are first marked out in their outlines and acquire later on their colour and softness or hardness, exactly as if Nature were a painter producing a work of art, for 30painters, too, first sketch in the animal with lines and only after that put in the colours.
Because the source of the sensations is in the heart, therefore this is the part first formed in the whole animal, and because of the heat of this organ the cold forms the brain, where the blood-vessels terminate above, corresponding to the heat of the heart. Hence the parts 35about the head begin to form next in order after the heart, and surpass the other parts in size, for the brain is from the first large and fluid.
Cooling, again, is mere deprivation of heat. Nature makes use of both; they have of necessity the power of 10bringing about different results, but in the development of the embryo we find that the one cools and the other heats for some definite purpose, and so each of the parts is formed; thus it is in one sense by necessity, in another for a final cause, that they make the flesh soft, the sinews solid and elastic, the bones solid and brittle. The skin, again, is formed 15by the drying of the flesh, like the scum upon boiled substances; it is so formed not only because it is on the outside, but also because what is glutinous, being unable to evaporate, remains on the surface. While in other animals the glutinous is dry, for which reason the covering of the invertebrates is testaceous or crustaceous, in the vertebrates it is rather 20of the nature of fat. In all of these which are not of too earthy a nature the fat is collected under the covering of the skin, a fact which points to the skin being formed out of such a glutinous substance, for fat is somewhat glutinous. As we said, all these things must be understood to be formed in one sense of necessity, but in another sense not of necessity 25but for a final cause.
The upper half of the body, then, is first marked out in the order of development; as time goes on the lower also reaches its full size in the sanguinea. All the parts are first marked out in their outlines and acquire later on their colour and softness or hardness, exactly as if Nature were a painter producing a work of art, for 30painters, too, first sketch in the animal with lines and only after that put in the colours.
Because the source of the sensations is in the heart, therefore this is the part first formed in the whole animal, and because of the heat of this organ the cold forms the brain, where the blood-vessels terminate above, corresponding to the heat of the heart. Hence the parts 35about the head begin to form next in order after the heart, and surpass the other parts in size, for the brain is from the first large and fluid.
744a
1 γεύσεως εὐθύς ἐστιν ἢ σῶμα ἢ τοῦ σώματός τι τῶν ζῴων, ἡ
δ' ὄσφρησις καὶ ἡ ἀκοὴ πόροι συνάπτοντες πρὸς τὸν ἀέρα
τὸν θύραθεν, πλήρεις συμφύτου πνεύματος, περαίνοντες δὲ
πρὸς τὰ φλέβια τὰ περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον τείνοντα ἀπὸ τῆς
5 καρδίας· ὁ δ' ὀφθαλμὸς σῶμα μόνον ἴδιον ἔχει τῶν αἰσθητηρίων.
ἔστι δ' ὑγρὸν καὶ ψυχρὸν καὶ οὐ προϋπάρχον ἐν τῷ
τόπῳ—καθάπερ καὶ τὰ ἄλλα μόρια δυνάμει, ἔπειτ' ἐνεργείᾳ
γιγνόμενα ὕστερον—ἀλλ' ἀπὸ τῆς περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον
ὑγρότητος ἀποκρίνεται τὸ καθαρώτατον διὰ τῶν πόρων οἳ
10 φαίνονται φέροντες ἀπ' αὐτῶν πρὸς τὴν μήνιγγα τὴν περὶ
τὸν ἐγκέφαλον. τούτου δὲ τεκμήριον· οὔτε γὰρ ἄλλο μόριον
ὑγρὸν καὶ ψυχρόν ἐστιν ἐν τῇ κεφαλῇ παρὰ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον,
τό τ' ὄμμα ψυχρὸν καὶ ὑγρόν. ἐξ ἀνάγκης οὖν ὁ τόπος
λαμβάνει μέγεθος τὸ πρῶτον, συμπίπτει δ' ὕστερον.
15 καὶ γὰρ περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον συμβαίνει τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον·
τὸ γὰρ πρῶτον ὑγρὸς καὶ πολύς, ἀποπνέοντος δὲ καὶ πεττομένου
σωματοῦταί τε μᾶλλον καὶ συμπίπτει καὶ ὁ ἐγκέφαλος
[καὶ τὰ σώματα] καὶ τὸ μέγεθος τὸ τῶν ὀμμάτων. ἐξ ἀρχῆς
δὲ διὰ μὲν τὸν ἐγκέφαλον ἡ κεφαλὴ μεγίστη, διὰ δὲ
20 τὸ ὑγρὸν τὸ ἐν τοῖς ὄμμασιν οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ μεγάλοι φαίνονται.
τελευταῖοι δὲ λαμβάνουσι τέλος διὰ τὸ καὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον
συνίστασθαι μόλις· ὀψὲ γὰρ παύεται τῆς ψυχρότητος
καὶ τῆς ὑγρότητος, ἐπὶ πάντων μὲν τῶν ἐχόντων, μάλιστα δ' ἐπὶ
τῶν ἀνθρώπων. διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο καὶ τὸ βρέγμα τῶν ὀστῶν
25 γίγνεται τελευταῖον· ἤδη γὰρ γεγενημένων θύραζε τῶν ἐμβρύων
μαλακόν ἐστι τοῦτο τὸ ὀστοῦν τοῖς παιδίοις. αἴτιον δὲ
τοῦ μάλιστ' ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων τοῦτο συμβαίνειν ὅτι τὸν ἐγκέφαλον
ὑγρότατον ἔχουσι καὶ πλεῖστον τῶν ζῴων, τούτου δ'
αἴτιον ὅτι καὶ τὴν ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ θερμότητα καθαρωτάτην.
30 δηλοῖ δὲ τὴν εὐκρασίαν ἡ διάνοια· φρονιμώτατον γάρ ἐστι
τῶν ζῴων ἄνθρωπος. ἀκρατῆ δὲ καὶ τὰ παιδία μέχρι πόρρω
τῆς κεφαλῆς ἐστι διὰ τὸ βάρος τὸ περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον.
ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῶν μορίων ὅσα δεῖ κινεῖν· ἡ γὰρ ἀρχὴ τῆς
κινήσεως ὀψὲ κρατεῖ τῶν ἄνωθεν καὶ τελευταίων ὅσων ἡ
35 κίνησις μὴ συνήρτηται πρὸς αὐτήν, ὥσπερ τῶν κώλων. τοιοῦτον
δ' ἐστὶ μόριον τὸ βλέφαρον. ἐπεὶ δ' οὐθὲν ποιεῖ περίεργον
οὐδὲ μάτην ἡ φύσις δῆλον ὡς οὐδ' ὕστερον οὐδὲ πρότερον· ἔσται
γὰρ τὸ γεγονὸς ἢ μάτην ἢ περίεργον. ὥσθ' ἅμ' ἀνάγκη τὰ
1There is a difficulty about what happens with the eyes of animals. Though from the beginning they appear very large in all creatures, whether they walk or swim or fly, yet they are the last of the parts to be formed completely, for in the intervening time they collapse. The reason is 5this. The sense-organ of the eyes is set upon certain passages, as are the other sense-organs. Whereas those of touch and taste are simply the body itself or some part of the body of animals, those of smell and hearing are passages connecting with the external air and full themselves of innate spiritus; these passages end at the small blood-vessels about the 10brain which run thither from the heart. But the eye is the only sense-organ that has a bodily constitution peculiar to itself. It is fluid and cold, and does not exist from the first in the place which it occupies later in the same way as the other parts do, for they exist potentially to begin with and actually come into being later, but the eye is the purest 15part of the liquidity about the brain drained off through the passages which are visible running from them to the membrane round the brain. A proof of this is that, apart from the brain, there is no other part in the head that is cold and fluid except the eye. Of necessity therefore this region is large at first but falls in later. For the same thing 20happens with the brain; at first it is liquid and large, but in course of evaporation and concoction it becomes more solid and falls in; this applies both to the brain and the eyes. The head is very large at first, on account of the brain, and the eyes appear large because of the liquid in them. They are the last organs to reach completion because the brain is 25formed with difficulty; for it is at a late period that it gets rid of its coldness and fluidity; this applies to all animals possessing a brain, but especially to man. For this reason the ‘bregma’ is the last of the bones to be formed; even after birth this bone is still soft in children. The cause of this being so with men more than with other animals is 30the fact that their brain is the most fluid and largest. This again is because the heat in man’s heart is purest. His intellect shows how well he is tempered, for man is the wisest of animals. And children for a long time have no control over their heads on account of the heaviness of the brain; and the same applies to the parts which it is necessary to 35move, for it is late that the principle of motion gets control over the upper parts, and last of all over those whose motion is not connected directly with it, as that of the legs is not. Now the eyelid is such a part.
744b
1 βλέφαρα διαχωρίζεσθαί τε καὶ δύνασθαι κινεῖν. ὀψὲ μὲν οὖν
διὰ τὸ πλῆθος τῆς περὶ τὸν ἐγκέφαλον πέψεως τελειοῦται
τὰ ὄμματα τοῖς ζῴοις, τελευταῖα δὲ διὰ τὸ σφόδρα κρατούσης
τῆς κινήσεως εἶναι τὸ κινεῖν καὶ τὰ οὕτω πόρρω τῆς
5 ἀρχῆς καὶ ἀπεψυγμένα τῶν μορίων. δηλοῖ δὲ τὰ βλέφαρα
τοιαύτην ἔχοντα τὴν φύσιν· ἂν γὰρ καὶ ὁποσονοῦν βάρος
γένηται περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν δι' ὕπνον ἢ μέθην ἢ ἄλλο τι
τῶν τοιούτων οὐ δυνάμεθα τὰ βλέφαρα αἴρειν, οὕτω βάρος
αὐτῶν ἐχόντων μικρόν. περὶ μὲν οὖν ὀφθαλμῶν εἴρηται πῶς
10 γίγνονται καὶ δι' ὅ τι καὶ διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν τελευταίαν λαμβάνουσι
τὴν διάρθρωσιν. Τῶν δ' ἄλλων γίγνεται μορίων ἕκαστον
ἐκ τῆς τροφῆς, τὰ μὲν τιμιώτατα καὶ μετειληφότα
τῆς κυριωτάτης ἀρχῆς ἐκ τῆς πεπεμμένης καὶ καθαρωτάτης
καὶ πρώτης τροφῆς, τὰ δ' ἀναγκαῖα μόρια καὶ τούτων
15 ἕνεκεν ἐκ τῆς χείρονος καὶ τῶν ὑπολειμμάτων καὶ περιττωμάτων.
ὥσπερ γὰρ οἰκονόμος ἀγαθὸς καὶ ἡ φύσις οὐθὲν
ἀποβάλλειν εἴωθεν ἐξ ὧν ἔστι ποιῆσαί τι χρηστόν. ἐν δὲ
ταῖς οἰκονομίαις τῆς γιγνομένης τροφῆς ἡ μὲν βελτίστη τέτακται
τοῖς ἐλευθέροις, ἡ δὲ χείρων καὶ τὸ περίττωμα ταύτης
20 <τοῖς> οἰκέταις, τὰ δὲ χείριστα καὶ τοῖς συντρεφομένοις διδόασι
ζῴοις. καθάπερ οὖν εἰς τὴν αὔξησιν ὁ †θύραθεν ταῦτα
ποιεῖ νοῦς οὕτως ἐν τοῖς γιγνομένοις αὐτοῖς ἡ φύσις ἐκ μὲν
τῆς καθαρωτάτης ὕλης σάρκας καὶ τῶν ἄλλων αἰσθητηρίων
τὰ σώματα συνίστησιν, ἐκ δὲ τῶν περιττωμάτων ὀστᾶ καὶ
25 νεῦρα καὶ τρίχας, ἔτι δ' ὄνυχας καὶ ὁπλὰς καὶ πάντα τὰ
τοιαῦτα· διὸ τελευταῖα ταῦτα λαμβάνει τὴν σύστασιν
ὅταν ἤδη γίγνηται περίττωμα τῆς φύσεως. Ἡ μὲν οὖν τῶν
ὀστῶν φύσις ἐν τῇ πρώτῃ συστάσει γίγνεται τῶν μορίων ἐκ
τῆς σπερματικῆς περιττώσεως, καὶ τῶν ζῴων αὐξανομένων
30 ἐκ τῆς φυσικῆς τροφῆς λαμβάνει τὴν αὔξησιν ἐξ ἧσπερ
τὰ μόρια τὰ κύρια, ταύτης μέντοι αὐτῆς τὰ ὑπολείμματα
καὶ τὰ περιττωματικά. γίγνεται γὰρ ἐν παντὶ τὸ πρῶτον
καὶ τὸ δεύτερον τῆς τροφῆς, τὸ μὲν θρεπτικὸν τὸ δ'
αὐξητικόν· θρεπτικὸν μὲν ὃ τὸ εἶναι παρέχεται τῷ τε ὅλῳ
35 καὶ τοῖς μορίοις, αὐξητικὸν δὲ τὸ εἰς μέγεθος ποιοῦν τὴν
ἐπίδοσιν· περὶ ὧν ὕστερον διοριστέον μᾶλλον. τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ
τρόπον τοῖς ὀστοῖς καὶ τὰ νεῦρα συνίσταται καὶ ἐκ τῶν αὐτῶν,
ἐκ τῆς σπερματικῆς περιττώσεως καὶ τῆς θρεπτικῆς.
1But since Nature makes nothing superfluous nor in vain, it is clear also that she makes nothing too late or too soon, for if she did the result would be either in vain or superfluous. Hence it is necessary that the eyelids should be separated at the same time as the heart is able to move them. 5So then the eyes of animals are perfected late because of the amount of concoction required by the brain, and last of all the parts because the motion must be very strong before it can affect parts so far from the first principle of motion and so cold. And it is plain that such is the nature of the eyelids, for if the head is affected by never so little heaviness 10through sleepiness or drunkenness or anything else of the kind, we cannot raise the eyelids though their own weight is so small. So much for the question how the eyes come into being, and why and for what cause they are the last to be fully developed.
Each of the other parts is formed out of the nutriment, those most honourable and participating in the sovereign principle 15from the nutriment which is first and purest and fully concocted, those which are only necessary for the sake of the former parts from the inferior nutriment and the residues left over from the other. For Nature, like a good householder, is not in the habit of throwing away anything from which it is possible to make anything useful. Now in a household the best 20part of the food that comes in is set apart for the free men, the inferior and the residue of the best for the slaves, and the worst is given to the animals that live with them. Just as the intellect acts thus in the outside world with a view to the growth of the persons concerned, so in the case of the embryo itself does Nature form from the purest material the flesh 25and the body of the other sense-organs, and from the residues thereof bones, sinews, hair, and also nails and hoofs and the like; hence these are last to assume their form, for they have to wait till the time when Nature has some residue to spare.
The bones, then, are made in the first conformation of the parts from the seminal secretion or residue. As the animal 30grows the bones grow from the natural nourishment, being the same as that of the sovereign parts, but of this they only take up the superfluous residues. For everywhere the nutriment may be divided into two kinds, the first and the second; the former is ‘nutritious’, being that which gives its essence both to the whole and to the parts; the latter is concerned with 35growth, being that which causes quantitative increase. But these must be distinguished more fully later on. The sinews are formed in the same way as the bones and out of the same materials, the Seminal and nutritious residue.
Each of the other parts is formed out of the nutriment, those most honourable and participating in the sovereign principle 15from the nutriment which is first and purest and fully concocted, those which are only necessary for the sake of the former parts from the inferior nutriment and the residues left over from the other. For Nature, like a good householder, is not in the habit of throwing away anything from which it is possible to make anything useful. Now in a household the best 20part of the food that comes in is set apart for the free men, the inferior and the residue of the best for the slaves, and the worst is given to the animals that live with them. Just as the intellect acts thus in the outside world with a view to the growth of the persons concerned, so in the case of the embryo itself does Nature form from the purest material the flesh 25and the body of the other sense-organs, and from the residues thereof bones, sinews, hair, and also nails and hoofs and the like; hence these are last to assume their form, for they have to wait till the time when Nature has some residue to spare.
The bones, then, are made in the first conformation of the parts from the seminal secretion or residue. As the animal 30grows the bones grow from the natural nourishment, being the same as that of the sovereign parts, but of this they only take up the superfluous residues. For everywhere the nutriment may be divided into two kinds, the first and the second; the former is ‘nutritious’, being that which gives its essence both to the whole and to the parts; the latter is concerned with 35growth, being that which causes quantitative increase. But these must be distinguished more fully later on. The sinews are formed in the same way as the bones and out of the same materials, the Seminal and nutritious residue.
745a
1 ὄνυχες δὲ καὶ τρίχες καὶ ὁπλαὶ καὶ κέρατα καὶ ῥύγχη
καὶ τὰ πλῆκτρα τῶν ὀρνίθων καὶ εἴ τι τοιοῦτον ἕτερόν ἐστι
μόριον ἐκ τῆς ἐπικτήτου τροφῆς καὶ τῆς αὐξητικῆς, ἥν τε
παρὰ τοῦ θήλεος ἐπικτᾶται καὶ [τῆς] θύραθεν. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο τὰ
5 μὲν ὀστᾶ μέχρι τινὸς λαμβάνει τὴν αὔξησιν· ἔστι γάρ τι
πᾶσι τοῖς ζῴοις πέρας τοῦ μεγέθους, διὸ καὶ τῆς τῶν ὀστῶν
αὐξήσεως. εἰ γὰρ ταῦτ' εἶχεν αὔξησιν ἀεὶ καὶ τῶν ζῴων
ὅσα ἔχει ὀστοῦν ἢ τὸ ἀνάλογον ηὐξάνετ' ἂν ἕως ἔζη· τοῦ γὰρ
μεγέθους ὅρος ἐστὶ ταῦτα τοῖς ζῴοις. δι' ἣν μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν οὐκ
10 ἀεὶ λαμβάνουσιν αὔξησιν λεκτέον ὕστερον· τρίχες δὲ καὶ τὰ
συγγενῆ τούτοις ἕως ἂν ὑπάρχωσιν αὐξάνονται, καὶ μᾶλλον
ἐν νόσοις καὶ τῶν σωμάτων γηρασκόντων καὶ φθινόντων διὰ
τὸ λείπεσθαι περίττωμα πλεῖον, ἐλάττονος εἰς τὰ κύρια δαπανωμένου
διὰ τὸ γῆρας καὶ τὰς νόσους, ἐπεί γ' ὅταν ὑπολείπῃ
15 καὶ τοῦτο διὰ τὴν ἡλικίαν καὶ αἱ τρίχες ὑπολείπουσιν.
τὰ δ' ὀστᾶ τοὐναντίον· συμφθίνει γὰρ τῷ σώματι καὶ τοῖς
μέρεσιν. αὐξάνονται δ' αἱ τρίχες καὶ τεθνεώτων, οὐ μέντοι γίγνονταί
γ' ἐξ ὑπαρχῆς. Περὶ δ' ὀδόντων ἀπορήσειεν ἄν τις.
εἰσὶ γὰρ τὴν μὲν φύσιν τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχοντες τοῖς ὀστοῖς καὶ
20 γίγνονται ἐκ τῶν ὀστῶν, ὄνυχες δὲ καὶ τρίχες καὶ κέρατα καὶ
τὰ τοιαῦτα ἐκ τοῦ δέρματος, διὸ καὶ συμμεταβάλλουσι τῷ
δέρματι τὰς χρόας· λευκά τε γὰρ καὶ μέλανα γίγνονται καὶ
παντοδαπὰ κατὰ τὴν τοῦ δέρματος χρόαν, οἱ δ' ὀδόντες οὐθέν·
ἐκ γὰρ τῶν ὀστῶν εἰσιν, ὅσα γε τῶν ζῴων ἔχει ὀδόντας καὶ ὀστᾶ.
25 αὐξάνονται δὲ διὰ βίου μόνοι τῶν ἄλλων ὀστῶν· τοῦτο δὲ δῆλον
ἐπὶ τῶν παρακλινόντων ὀδόντων τὴν ἁφὴν τὴν ἀλλήλων.
αἴτιον δὲ τῆς αὐξήσεως ὡς μὲν ἕνεκά του διὰ τὸ ἔργον·
ταχὺ γὰρ ἂν κατετρίβοντο μὴ γιγνομένης τινὸς ἐπιρρύσεως,
ἐπεὶ καὶ νῦν ἐνίοις γηράσκουσι τοῖς βρωτικοῖς μὲν μὴ μεγάλους
30 δ' ἔχουσι κατατρίβονται πάμπαν· πλείονι γὰρ λόγῳ
καθαιροῦνται τῆς αὐξήσεως. διὸ καὶ τοῦτο εὖ μεμηχάνηται
πρὸς τὸ συμβαῖνον ἡ φύσις· συνάγει γὰρ εἰς τὸ γῆρας καὶ
τὴν τελευτὴν τὴν ὑπόλειψιν τῶν ὀδόντων. εἰ δ' ἦν μυριετὴς ὁ
βίος ἢ χιλιετής, παμμεγέθεις τ' ἂν ἔδει γίγνεσθαι τοὺς ἐξ
35 ἀρχῆς καὶ φύεσθαι πολλάκις· καὶ γὰρ εἰ συνεχῆ τὴν αὔξησιν
1Nails, hair, hoofs, horns, beaks, the spurs of cocks, and any other similar parts, are on the contrary formed from the nutriment which is taken later and only concerned with growth, in other words that which is derived from the mother, or from the outer world after birth. For this reason the bones on 5the one hand only grow up to a certain point (for there is a limit of size in all animals, and therefore also of the growth of the bones; if these had been always able to grow, all animals that have bone or its analogue would grow as long as they lived, for these set the limit of size to animals. What is the reason of their not always increasing in size must be stated 10later.)
Hair, on the contrary, and growths akin to hair go on growing as long as they exist at all, and increase yet more in diseases and when the body is getting old and wasting, because more residual matter is left over, as owing to old age and disease less is expended on the important parts, though when the residual matter also fails through age the hair fails with it. But the 15contrary is the case with the bones, for they waste away along with the body and the other parts. Hair actually goes on growing after death; it does not, however, begin growing then.
About the teeth a difficulty may be raised. They have actually the same nature as the bones, and are formed out of the bones, but nails, hair, horns, and the like are formed out of the skin, and 20that is why they change in colour along with it, for they become white, black, and all sorts of colours according to that of the skin. But the teeth do nothing of the sort, for they are made out of the bones in all animals that have both bones and teeth. Of all the bones they alone go on growing through life, as is plain with the teeth which grow out of the straight line so 25as no longer to touch each other. The reason for their growth, as a final cause, is their function, for they would soon be worn down if there were not some means of saving them; even as it is they are altogether worn down in old age in some animals which eat much and have not large teeth, their growth not being in proportion to their detrition. And so Nature has contrived well 30to meet the case in this also, for she causes the failure of the teeth to synchronize with old age and death. If life lasted for a thousand or ten thousand years the original teeth must have been very large indeed, and many sets of them must have been produced, for even if they had grown continuously they would still have been worn smooth and become useless for their work.
Hair, on the contrary, and growths akin to hair go on growing as long as they exist at all, and increase yet more in diseases and when the body is getting old and wasting, because more residual matter is left over, as owing to old age and disease less is expended on the important parts, though when the residual matter also fails through age the hair fails with it. But the 15contrary is the case with the bones, for they waste away along with the body and the other parts. Hair actually goes on growing after death; it does not, however, begin growing then.
About the teeth a difficulty may be raised. They have actually the same nature as the bones, and are formed out of the bones, but nails, hair, horns, and the like are formed out of the skin, and 20that is why they change in colour along with it, for they become white, black, and all sorts of colours according to that of the skin. But the teeth do nothing of the sort, for they are made out of the bones in all animals that have both bones and teeth. Of all the bones they alone go on growing through life, as is plain with the teeth which grow out of the straight line so 25as no longer to touch each other. The reason for their growth, as a final cause, is their function, for they would soon be worn down if there were not some means of saving them; even as it is they are altogether worn down in old age in some animals which eat much and have not large teeth, their growth not being in proportion to their detrition. And so Nature has contrived well 30to meet the case in this also, for she causes the failure of the teeth to synchronize with old age and death. If life lasted for a thousand or ten thousand years the original teeth must have been very large indeed, and many sets of them must have been produced, for even if they had grown continuously they would still have been worn smooth and become useless for their work.
745b
1 εἶχον, ὅμως ἂν ἄχρηστοι λεαινόμενοι πρὸς τὴν ἐργασίαν
ἦσαν. οὗ μὲν οὖν ἕνεκα λαμβάνουσι τὴν αὔξησιν εἴρηται· συμβαίνει
δὲ μηδὲ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχειν φύσιν τοῖς ἄλλοις ὀστοῖς τοὺς
ὀδόντας· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἐν τῇ πρώτῃ συστάσει γίγνεται πάντα
5 καὶ οὐθὲν ὕστερον, οἱ δ' ὀδόντες ὕστερον. διὸ καὶ πάλιν δύνανται
φύεσθαι ἐκπεσόντες· ἅπτονται γὰρ ἀλλ' οὐ συμπεφύκασι
τοῖς ὀστοῖς. ἐκ μέντοι τῆς τροφῆς τῆς εἰς τὰ ὀστᾶ διαδιδομένης
γίγνονται, διὸ τὴν αὐτὴν ἔχουσι φύσιν, καὶ τότε
ὅταν ἐκεῖνα ἔχῃ ἤδη τὸν ἀριθμὸν τὸν αὑτῶν. τὰ μὲν οὖν ἄλλα
10 ζῷα ἔχοντα γίγνεται ὀδόντας καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον τοῖς ὀδοῦσιν,
ἐὰν μή τι γίγνηται παρὰ φύσιν, διὰ τὸ ἀπολύεσθαι τῆς γενέσεως
τετελεσμένα τοῦ ἀνθρώπου μᾶλλον· ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος,
ἂν μή τι συμβῇ παρὰ φύσιν, οὐκ ἔχων. δι' ἣν δ' αἰτίαν
οἱ μὲν γίγνονται τῶν ὀδόντων καὶ ἐκπίπτουσιν οἱ δ' οὐκ ἐκπίπτουσιν
15 ὕστερον λεχθήσεται. Διότι δ' ἐκ περιττώματός ἐστι
τὰ τοιαῦτα τῶν μορίων, διὰ τοῦτ' ἄνθρωπος ψιλότατόν τε
κατὰ τὸ σῶμα τῶν ζῴων πάντων ἐστὶ καὶ ὄνυχας ἐλαχίστους
ἔχει ὡς κατὰ μέγεθος· ἐλάχιστον γὰρ ἔχει περίττωμα
γεῶδες· ἔστι δὲ περίττωμα μὲν τὸ ἄπεπτον, τὸ δὲ γεηρὸν ἐν
20 τοῖς σώμασι πάντων ἀπεπτότατον.
1The final cause of their growth has been now stated, but besides this as a matter of fact the growth of the teeth is not the same as that of the other bones. The latter all come into being in the first formation of the embryo and none of them later, but the teeth do so later. Therefore 5it is possible for them to grow again after the first set falls out, for though they touch the bones they are not connate with them. They are formed, however, out of the nutriment distributed to the bones, and so have the same nature, even when the bones have their own number complete.
Other animals are born in possession of teeth or their analogue 10(unless in cases contrary to Nature), because when they are set free from the parent they are more perfect than man; but man (also unless in cases contrary to Nature) is born without them.
The reason will be stated later why some teeth are formed and fall out but others do not fall out.
It is because such parts are formed from a residue that man is the 15most naked in body of all animals and has the smallest nails in proportion to his size; he has the least amount of earthy residue, but that part of the blood which is not concocted is the residue, and the earthy part in the bodies of all animals is the least concocted. We have now stated how each of the parts is formed and what is the cause of their 20generation.
Other animals are born in possession of teeth or their analogue 10(unless in cases contrary to Nature), because when they are set free from the parent they are more perfect than man; but man (also unless in cases contrary to Nature) is born without them.
The reason will be stated later why some teeth are formed and fall out but others do not fall out.
It is because such parts are formed from a residue that man is the 15most naked in body of all animals and has the smallest nails in proportion to his size; he has the least amount of earthy residue, but that part of the blood which is not concocted is the residue, and the earthy part in the bodies of all animals is the least concocted. We have now stated how each of the parts is formed and what is the cause of their 20generation.
Book 2,Chapter 7 (745b21–747a22)
Πῶς μὲν οὖν ἕκαστον συνίσταται τῶν μορίων εἴρηται, καὶ
τί τῆς γενέσεως αἴτιον. Ἔχει δὲ τὴν αὔξησιν τὰ ζῳοτοκούμενα
τῶν ἐμβρύων ὥσπερ ἐλέχθη πρότερον διὰ τῆς τοῦ ὀμφαλοῦ
προσφύσεως. ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἔνεστιν ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις καὶ ἡ θρεπτικὴ
25 δύναμις τῆς ψυχῆς, ἀφίησιν εὐθὺς οἷον ῥίζαν τὸν ὀμφαλὸν
εἰς τὴν ὑστέραν. ἔστι δὲ ὁ ὀμφαλὸς ἐν κελύφει φλέβες, τοῖς
μὲν μείζοσι πλείους οἷον βοῒ καὶ τοῖς τοιούτοις, τοῖς δὲ μέσοις
δύο, μία δὲ τοῖς ἐλαχίστοις. διὰ δὲ τούτου λαμβάνει τὴν τροφὴν
αἱματικήν· αἱ γὰρ ὑστέραι πέρατα φλεβῶν πολλῶν
30 εἰσιν. τὰ μὲν οὖν μὴ ἀμφώδοντα πάντα καὶ τῶν ἀμφωδόντων
ὅσων ἡ ὑστέρα μὴ μίαν φλέβα μεγάλην ἔχει διατείνουσαν
ἀλλ' ἀντὶ μιᾶς πυκνὰς πολλάς, ταῦτα ἐν ταῖς ὑστέραις
ἔχει τὰς καλουμένας κοτυληδόνας <πρὸς ἃς ὁ ὀμφαλὸς συνάπτει
σαι πρὸς τὴν ὑστέραν τὸ δὲ κοῖλον πρὸς τὸ ἔμβρυον. μεταξὺ
35 δὲ τῆς ὑστέρας καὶ τοῦ ἐμβρύου τὸ χόριον καὶ οἱ ὑμένες εἰσίν.
In viviparous animals, as said before, the embryo gets its growth through the umbilical cord. For since the nutritive power of the soul, as well as the others, is present in animals, it straightway sends off this cord like a root to the uterus. The cord consists of blood-vessels in a sheath, more numerous in the larger animals as cattle and the 25like, one in the smallest, two in those of intermediate size. Through this cord the embryo receives its nourishment in the form of blood, for the uterus is the termination of many blood-vessels. All animals with no front teeth in the upper jaw, and all those which have them in both jaws and whose uterus has not one great blood-vessel running through it 30but many close together insteadall these have in the uterus the so-called cotyledons (with which the umbilical cord connects and is closely united; for the vessels which pass through the cord run backwards and forwards between embryo and uterus and split up into smaller vessels all over the uterus; where they terminate, there are found the cotyledons).
746a
1 αἱ δὲ κοτυληδόνες αὐξανομένου καὶ τελεουμένου τοῦ ἐμβρύου γίγνονται
ἐλάττους καὶ τέλος ἀφανίζονται τελεωθέντος. εἰς τοῦτο
γὰρ προεκτίθεται τοῖς ἐμβρύοις ἡ φύσις τὴν αἱματικὴν τροφὴν
τῆς ὑστέρας ὥσπερ εἰς μαστούς, καὶ διὰ τὸ ἀθροίζεσθαι
5 κατὰ μικρὸν ἐκ πολλῶν οἷον ἐξάνθημα καὶ φλεγμασία
γίγνεται τὸ σῶμα τὸ τῆς κοτυληδόνος. ἕως μὲν ἂν οὖν
ἔλαττον ᾖ τὸ ἔμβρυον, οὐ δυνάμενον πολλὴν λαμβάνειν τροφήν,
δῆλαί εἰσι καὶ μείζονες, αὐξηθέντος δὲ συμπίπτουσιν. Τὰ
δὲ πολλὰ τῶν κολοβῶν ζῴων καὶ ἀμφωδόντων οὐκ ἔχει κοτυληδόνας
10 ἐν ταῖς ὑστέραις, ἀλλ' ὁ ὀμφαλὸς εἰς φλέβα τείνει
μίαν, αὕτη δὲ τέταται διὰ τῆς ὑστέρας ἔχουσα μέγεθος.
ἐπεὶ δὲ τὰ μὲν μονοτόκα τὰ δὲ πολυτόκα τῶν τοιούτων ἐστὶ
ζῴων, καὶ τὰ πλείω τῶν ἐμβρύων τὸν αὐτὸν ἔχει τρόπον τῷ
ἑνί. δεῖ δὲ ταῦτα θεωρεῖν ἔκ τε τῶν παραδειγμάτων τῶν ἐν
15 ταῖς ἀνατομαῖς καὶ τῶν ἐν ταῖς ἱστορίαις γεγραμμένων. πεφύκασι
γὰρ τὰ ζῷα ἐκ τοῦ ὀμφαλοῦ, ὁ δ' ὀμφαλὸς ἐκ τῆς
φλεβὸς ἐφεξῆς ἀλλήλοις, ὡσπερανεὶ παρ' ὀχετὸν τὴν φλέβα
ῥέουσαν· περὶ δὲ ἕκαστον τῶν ἐμβρύων οἵ θ' ὑμένες καὶ τὸ
χόριόν ἐστιν. Οἱ δὲ λέγοντες τρέφεσθαι τὰ παιδία ἐν ταῖς ὑστέραις
20 διὰ τοῦ σαρκίδιόν τι βδάλλειν οὐκ ὀρθῶς λέγουσιν· ἐπί τε
γὰρ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ταὐτὸν συνέβαινεν ἄν, νῦν δ' οὐ φαίνεται
(θεωρῆσαι γὰρ τοῦτο ῥᾴδιον διὰ τῶν ἀνατομῶν), καὶ
περὶ ἅπαντα τὰ ἔμβρυα καὶ τὰ πτηνὰ καὶ τὰ πλωτὰ καὶ
τὰ τῶν πεζῶν ὁμοίως λεπτοὶ περιέχουσιν ὑμένες χωρίζοντες
25 ἀπό τε τῆς ὑστέρας καὶ τῶν ἐγγιγνομένων ὑγρῶν ἐν οἷς οὔτ' αὐτοῖς
ἔνεστι τοιοῦτον οὐθέν, οὔτε διὰ τούτων οὐθενὸς ἐνδέχεται ποιεῖσθαι
τὴν ἀπόλαυσιν· τὰ δ' ᾠοτοκούμενα πάντα ὅτι λαμβάνει τὴν
αὔξησιν χωρισθέντα τῆς μήτρας ἔξω φανερόν, <ὥστε λέγουσιν οὐκ
Γίγνεται δὲ ὁ συνδυασμὸς τοῖς ζῴοις κατὰ φύσιν μὲν
30 τοῖς ὁμογενέσιν, οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς μὲν σύνεγγυς τὴν φύσιν
ἔχουσιν οὐκ ἀδιαφόροις δὲ τῷ εἴδει, ἐὰν τά τε μεγέθη παραπλήσια
ᾖ καὶ οἱ χρόνοι ἴσοι ὦσι τῆς κυήσεως. σπάνια μὲν
οὖν γίγνεται τὰ τοιαῦτα ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων, γίγνεται δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ
κυνῶν καὶ ἀλωπέκων καὶ λύκων <καὶ θώων>· καὶ οἱ Ἰνδικοὶ δὲ κύνες
35 ἐκ θηρίου τινὸς κυνώδους γεννῶνται καὶ κυνός. καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν
1Their convexity is turned towards the uterus, the concavity towards the embryo. Between uterus and embryo are the chorion and the membranes. As the embryo grows and approaches perfection the cotyledons become smaller and finally disappear when it is perfected. For Nature 5sends the sanguineous nutriment for the embryo into this part of the uterus as she sends milk into the breasts, and because the cotyledons are gradually aggregated from many into a few the body of the cotyledon becomes like an eruption or inflammation. So long as the embryo is comparatively small, being unable to receive much nutriment, 10they are plain and large, but when it has increased in size they fall in together.
But most of the animals which have front teeth in both jaws and no horns have no cotyledons in the uterus, but the umbilical cord runs to meet one blood-vessel, which is large and extends throughout the uterus. Of such animals some produce one young 15at a time, some more than one, but the same description applies to both these classes. (This should be studied with the aid of the examples drawn in the Anatomy and the Enquiries.) For the young, if numerous, are attached each to its umbilical cord, and this to the blood-vessel of the mother; they are arranged next to one another along 20the stream of the blood-vessel as along a canal; and each embryo is enclosed in its membranes and chorion.
Those who say that children are nourished in the uterus by sucking some lump of flesh or other are mistaken. If so, the same would have been the case with other animals, but as it is we do not find this (and this can easily be 25observed by dissection). Secondly, all embryos alike, whether of creatures that fly or swim or walk, are surrounded by fine membranes separating them from the uterus and from the fluids which are formed in it; but neither in these themselves is there anything of the kind, nor is it possible for the embryo to take nourishment by means of 30any of them. Thirdly, it is plain that all creatures developed in eggs grow when separated from the uterus.
Natural intercourse takes place between animals of the same kind. However, those also unite whose nature is near akin and whose form is not very different, if their size is much the same and if the periods of gestation are equal.
But most of the animals which have front teeth in both jaws and no horns have no cotyledons in the uterus, but the umbilical cord runs to meet one blood-vessel, which is large and extends throughout the uterus. Of such animals some produce one young 15at a time, some more than one, but the same description applies to both these classes. (This should be studied with the aid of the examples drawn in the Anatomy and the Enquiries.) For the young, if numerous, are attached each to its umbilical cord, and this to the blood-vessel of the mother; they are arranged next to one another along 20the stream of the blood-vessel as along a canal; and each embryo is enclosed in its membranes and chorion.
Those who say that children are nourished in the uterus by sucking some lump of flesh or other are mistaken. If so, the same would have been the case with other animals, but as it is we do not find this (and this can easily be 25observed by dissection). Secondly, all embryos alike, whether of creatures that fly or swim or walk, are surrounded by fine membranes separating them from the uterus and from the fluids which are formed in it; but neither in these themselves is there anything of the kind, nor is it possible for the embryo to take nourishment by means of 30any of them. Thirdly, it is plain that all creatures developed in eggs grow when separated from the uterus.
Natural intercourse takes place between animals of the same kind. However, those also unite whose nature is near akin and whose form is not very different, if their size is much the same and if the periods of gestation are equal.
746b
1 ὀρνίθων δὲ τῶν ὀχευτικῶν ὦπται τοῦτο συμβαῖνον, οἷον ἐπὶ περδίκων
καὶ ἀλεκτορίδων· καὶ τῶν γαμψωνύχων οἱ ἱέρακες
δοκοῦσιν οἱ διαφέροντες τῷ εἴδει μίγνυσθαι πρὸς ἀλλήλους·
καὶ ἐπ' ἄλλων δέ τινων ὀρνέων ἔχει τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον. ἐπὶ
5 δὲ τῶν θαλαττίων οὐθὲν ἀξιόλογον ἑώραται, δοκοῦσι δὲ μάλιστα
οἱ ῥινοβάται καλούμενοι γίγνεσθαι ἐκ ῥίνης καὶ βάτου συνδυαζομένων.
λέγεται δὲ καὶ τὸ περὶ τῆς Λιβύης παροιμιαζόμενον
ὡς ἀεί τι τῆς Λιβύης τρεφούσης καινόν, διὰ τὸ μίγνυσθαι
καὶ τὰ μὴ ὁμόφυλα ἀλλήλοις λεχθῆναι τοῦτο· διὰ
10 γὰρ τὴν σπάνιν τοῦ ὕδατος ἀπαντῶντα πάντα πρὸς ὀλίγους
τόπους τοὺς ἔχοντας νάματα μίγνυσθαι καὶ τὰ μὴ ὁμογενῆ.
Τὰ μὲν οὖν ἄλλα τῶν ἐκ τοιαύτης μίξεως γιγνομένων συνδυαζόμενα
φαίνεται πάλιν ἀλλήλοις καὶ μιγνύμενα καὶ δυνάμενα
τό τε θῆλυ καὶ τὸ ἄρρεν γεννᾶν, οἱ δ' ὀρεῖς ἄγονοι
15 μόνοι τῶν τοιούτων· οὔτε γὰρ ἐξ ἀλλήλων οὔτ' ἄλλοις μιγνύμενοι
γεννῶσιν. ἔστι δὲ τὸ πρόβλημα καθόλου μὲν διὰ τίν'
αἰτίαν ἄγονον ἢ ἄρρεν ἢ θῆλύ ἐστιν· εἰσὶ γὰρ καὶ γυναῖκες
καὶ ἄνδρες ἄγονοι καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων ἐν τοῖς γένεσιν ἑκάστοις,
οἷον ἵπποις καὶ προβάτοις. ἀλλὰ τοῦτο τὸ γένος ὅλον
20 ἄγονόν ἐστι, τὸ τῶν ἡμιόνων. τὰ δ' αἴτια τῆς ἀγονίας ἐπὶ
μὲν τῶν ἄλλων πλείω συμβαίνει· καὶ γὰρ ἐκ γενετῆς ὅταν
πηρωθῶσι τοὺς τόπους τοὺς πρὸς τὴν μίξιν χρησίμους ἄγονοι
γίγνονται καὶ γυναῖκες καὶ ἄνδρες ὥστε τὰς μὲν μὴ ἡβᾶν
τοὺς δὲ μὴ γενειᾶν ἀλλ' εὐνουχίας διατελεῖν ὄντας· τοῖς δὲ
25 προϊούσης τῆς ἡλικίας ταὐτὸν συμβαίνει πάσχειν, ὁτὲ μὲν δι'
εὐτροφίαν τῶν σωμάτων (ταῖς μὲν γὰρ πιοτέραις γιγνομέναις
τοῖς δ' εὐεκτικωτέροις εἰς τὸ σῶμα καταναλίσκεται τὸ περίττωμα
τὸ σπερματικόν, καὶ ταῖς μὲν οὐ γίγνεται καταμήνια
τοῖς δὲ γονή), ὁτὲ δὲ διὰ νόσον οἱ μὲν ὑγρὸν καὶ ψυχρὸν
30 προΐενται, ταῖς δὲ γυναιξὶν αἱ καθάρσεις φαῦλαι καὶ πλήρεις
νοσηματικῶν περιττωμάτων. πολλοῖς δὲ καὶ πολλαῖς καὶ
διὰ πηρώματα τοῦτο συμβαίνει τὸ πάθος περὶ τὰ μόρια καὶ
τοὺς τόπους τοὺς πρὸς τὴν ὁμιλίαν χρησίμους. γίγνεται δὲ τὰ
μὲν ἰατὰ τὰ δ' ἀνίατα τῶν τοιούτων, μάλιστα δὲ διατελοῦσιν
35 ἄγονα <τὰ> κατὰ τὴν πρώτην σύστασιν τοιαῦτα γενόμενα· γίγνονται
1In other animals such cases are rare, but they occur with dogs and foxes and wolves; the Indian dogs also spring from the union of a dog with some wild dog-like animal. A similar thing has been seen to take place in those birds that are amative, as partridges 5and hens. Among birds of prey hawks of different form are thought to unite, and the same applies to some other birds. Nothing worth mentioning has been observed in the inhabitants of the sea, but the so-called ‘rhinobates’ especially is thought to spring from the union of the ‘rhini’ and ‘batus’. And the proverb 10about Libya, that ‘Libya is always producing something new’, is said to have originated from animals of different species uniting with one another in that country, for it is said that because of the want of water all meet at the few places where springs are to be found, and that even different kinds unite in 15consequence.
Of the animals that arise from such union all except mules are found to copulate again with each other and to be able to produce young of both sexes, but mules alone are sterile, for they do not generate by union with one another or with other animals. The problem why any individual, whether male or female, is 20sterile is a general one, for some men and women are sterile, and so are other animals in their several kinds, as horses and sheep. But this kind, of mules, is universally so. The causes of sterility in other animals are several. Both men and women are sterile from birth when the parts useful for union are imperfect, 25so that men never grow a beard but remain like eunuchs, and women do not attain puberty; the same thing may befall others as their years advance, sometimes on account of the body being too well nourished (for men who are in too good condition and women who are too fat the seminal secretion is taken up into the body, 30and the former have no semen, the latter no catamenia); at other times by reason of sickness men emit the semen in a cold and liquid state, and the discharges of women are bad and full of morbid secretions. Often, too, in both sexes this state is caused by injuries in the parts and regions contributory to copulation.
Of the animals that arise from such union all except mules are found to copulate again with each other and to be able to produce young of both sexes, but mules alone are sterile, for they do not generate by union with one another or with other animals. The problem why any individual, whether male or female, is 20sterile is a general one, for some men and women are sterile, and so are other animals in their several kinds, as horses and sheep. But this kind, of mules, is universally so. The causes of sterility in other animals are several. Both men and women are sterile from birth when the parts useful for union are imperfect, 25so that men never grow a beard but remain like eunuchs, and women do not attain puberty; the same thing may befall others as their years advance, sometimes on account of the body being too well nourished (for men who are in too good condition and women who are too fat the seminal secretion is taken up into the body, 30and the former have no semen, the latter no catamenia); at other times by reason of sickness men emit the semen in a cold and liquid state, and the discharges of women are bad and full of morbid secretions. Often, too, in both sexes this state is caused by injuries in the parts and regions contributory to copulation.
747a
1 γὰρ γυναῖκές τε ἀρρενωποὶ καὶ ἄνδρες θηλυκοί, καὶ ταῖς
μὲν οὐ γίγνεται τὰ καταμήνια τοῖς δὲ τὸ σπέρμα λεπτὸν καὶ
ψυχρόν. διόπερ εὐλόγως βασανίζεται ταῖς πείραις τό γε
τῶν ἀνδρῶν, εἰ ἄγονον, ἐν τῷ ὕδατι· ταχὺ γὰρ διαχεῖται
5 τὸ λεπτὸν καὶ ψυχρὸν ἐπιπολῆς, τὸ δὲ γόνιμον εἰς βυθὸν
χωρεῖ· θερμὸν μὲν γὰρ τὸ πεπεμμένον ἐστί, πέπεπται δὲ τὸ
συνεστηκὸς καὶ πάχος ἔχον. τὰς δὲ γυναῖκας βασανίζουσι
τοῖς τε προσθέτοις, ἐὰν διικνῶνται αἱ ὀσμαὶ πρὸς τὸ πνεῦμα
τὸ θύραζε κάτωθεν ἄνω, καὶ τοῖς ἐγχρίστοις εἰς τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς
10 χρώμασιν ἂν χρωματίζωσι τὸ ἐν τῷ στόματι πτύελον.
ταῦτα γὰρ οὐ συμβαίνοντα δηλοῖ τὸ σῶμα τοὺς πόρους δι'
ὧν ἀποκρίνεται τὸ περίττωμα συγκεχυμένους ἔχειν καὶ συμπεφυκότας.
ὅ τε γὰρ περὶ τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς τόπος τῶν περὶ
τὴν κεφαλὴν σπερματικώτατός ἐστιν. δηλοῖ δ' ἐν ταῖς
15 ὁμιλίαις μετασχηματιζόμενος ἐπιδήλως μόνος, καὶ τοῖς
χρωμένοις πλείοσιν ἀφροδισίοις ἐνδιδόασι τὰ ὄμματα φανερῶς.
αἴτιον δ' ὅτι ἡ τῆς γονῆς φύσις ὁμοίως ἔχει τῇ τοῦ
ἐγκεφάλου· ὑδατώδης γάρ ἐστιν ἡ ὕλη αὐτῆς, ἡ δὲ θερμότης
ἐπίκτητος. καὶ αἱ σπερματικαὶ καθάρσεις ἀπὸ τοῦ ὑποζώματός
20 εἰσιν· ἡ γὰρ ἀρχὴ τῆς φύσεως ἐντεῦθεν, ὥστε διικνεῖσθαι
πρὸς τὸν θώρακα τὰς κινήσεις ἀπὸ τῶν ἄρθρων· αἱ δ'
ἐκ τοῦ θώρακος ὀσμαὶ πᾶσαι ποιοῦσιν αἴσθησιν διὰ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς.
1Some such cases are curable, others incurable, but the subjects especially remain sterile if anything of the sort has happened in the first formation of the parts in the embryo, for then are produced women of a masculine and men of a feminine appearance, and in the former the catamenia do not occur, in the latter 5the semen is thin and cold. Hence it is with good reason that the semen of men is tested in water to find out if it is infertile, for that which is thin and cold is quickly spread out on the surface, but the fertile sinks to the bottom, for that which is well concocted is hot indeed, but that which is firm and thick is well concocted. They test women by pessaries to see if the smells thereof 10permeate from below upwards to the breath from the mouth and by colours smeared upon the eyes to see if they colour the saliva. If these results do not follow it is a sign that the passages of the body, through which the catamenia are secreted, are clogged and closed. For the region about the eyes is, of all the head, that most nearly connected with the generative secretions; a proof of 15this is that it alone is visibly changed in sexual intercourse, and those who indulge too much in this are seen to have their eyes sunken in. The reason is that the nature of the semen is similar to that of the brain, for the material of it is watery (the heat being acquired later). And the seminal purgations are from the region of the diaphragm, for the first principle of nature is there, 20so that the movements from the pudenda are communicated to the chest, and the smells from the chest are perceived through the respiration.
Book 2,Chapter 8 (747a23–749a6)
Ἐν μὲν οὖν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις γένεσιν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται
πρότερον, κατὰ μέρος ἡ τοιαύτη συμβαίνει πήρωσις, τὸ δὲ
25 τῶν ἡμιόνων γένος ὅλον ἄγονόν ἐστιν. περὶ δὲ τῆς αἰτίας, ὡς
μὲν λέγουσιν Ἐμπεδοκλῆς καὶ Δημόκριτος—λέγων ὁ μὲν οὐ
σαφῶς Δημόκριτος δὲ γνωρίμως μᾶλλον—οὐ καλῶς εἰρήκασιν.
λέγουσι γὰρ ἐπὶ πάντων ὁμοίως τὴν ἀπόδειξιν τῶν παρὰ
τὴν συγγένειαν συνδυαζομένων. Δημόκριτος μὲν γάρ φησι
30 διεφθάρθαι τοὺς πόρους τῶν ἡμιόνων ἐν ταῖς ὑστέραις διὰ τὸ
μὴ ἐκ συγγενῶν γενέσθαι τὴν ἀρχὴν τῶν ζῴων. συμβαίνει
δ' ἐφ' ἑτέρων ζῴων τοῦτο μὲν ὑπάρχειν, γεννᾶν δὲ μηδὲν
ἧττον—καίτοι χρῆν, εἴπερ αἴτιον τοῦτ' ἦν τῆς ἀγονίας, ἄγονα καὶ
τἆλλ' εἶναι τὰ μιγνύμενα τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δ' αἰτιᾶται
35 τὸ μίγμα τὸ τῶν σπερμάτων γίγνεσθαι πυκνὸν ἐκ μαλακῆς
In men, then, and in other kinds, as said before, such deficiency occurs sporadically, but the whole of the mule kind is sterile. The reason has not been rightly given by Empedocles and Democritus, of whom the former expresses himself obscurely, the 25latter more intelligibly. For they offer their demonstration in the case of all these animals alike which unite against their affinities. Democritus says that the genital passages of mules are spoilt in the mother’s uterus because the animals from the first are not produced from parents of the same kind. But we find that though this is so with other animals they are none the less able to 30generate; yet, if this were the reason, all others that unite in this manner ought to be barren. Empedocles assigns as his reason that the mixture of the ‘seeds’ becomes dense, each of the two seminal fluids out of which it is made being soft, for the hollows in each fit into the densities of the other, and in such cases a hard substance is formed out of soft ones, like bronze mingled with tin.
747b
1 τῆς γονῆς οὔσης ἑκατέρας· συναρμόττειν γὰρ τὰ κοῖλα
τοῖς πυκνοῖς ἀλλήλων, ἐκ δὲ τῶν τοιούτων γίγνεσθαι ἐκ μαλακῶν
σκληρὸν ὥσπερ τῷ καττιτέρῳ μιχθέντα τὸν χαλκόν—
λέγων οὔτ' ἐπὶ τοῦ χαλκοῦ καὶ τοῦ καττιτέρου τὴν αἰτίαν ὀρθῶς
5 (εἴρηται δ' ἐν τοῖς Προβλήμασι περὶ αὐτῶν) οὔθ' ὅλως ἐκ
γνωρίμων ποιούμενος τὰς ἀρχάς. τὰ γὰρ κοῖλα καὶ τὰ
στερεὰ ἁρμόττοντα ἀλλήλοις πῶς ποιεῖ τὴν μίξιν οἷον οἴνου
καὶ ὕδατος; τοῦτο γὰρ ὑπὲρ ἡμᾶς ἐστι τὸ λεγόμενον· πῶς
γὰρ δεῖ λαβεῖν τὰ κοῖλα τοῦ οἴνου καὶ τοῦ ὕδατος λίαν ἐστὶ
10 παρὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν. ἔτι δ' ἐπειδὴ συμβαίνει καὶ ἐξ ἵππων
γίγνεσθαι ἵππον καὶ ἐξ ὄνων ὄνον καὶ ἐξ ἵππου καὶ ὄνου ἡμίονον,
ἀμφοτέρως ἄρρενος καὶ θήλεος ὁποτερουοῦν ὄντος, διὰ τί
ἐκ μὲν τούτων γίγνεται πυκνὸν οὕτως ὥστ' ἄγονον εἶναι τὸ γενόμενον,
ἐκ δὲ ἵππου θήλεος καὶ ἄρρενος ἢ ὄνου θήλεος καὶ ἄρρενος
15 οὐ γίγνεται ἄγονον; καίτοι μαλακὸν καὶ τὸ τοῦ ἄρρενος ἵππου
ἐστὶ καὶ τὸ τοῦ θήλεος, μίγνυται δὲ καὶ ὁ θῆλυς ἵππος καὶ
ὁ ἄρρην τῷ ὄνῳ, καὶ τῷ ἄρρενι καὶ τῷ θήλει. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο
γίγνονται ἄγονα ἐξ ἀμφοτέρων, ὥς φησιν, ὅτι ἐξ ἀμφοῖν ἕν
τι γίγνεται <πυκνόν>, μαλακῶν ὄντων τῶν σπερμάτων. ἔδει οὖν καὶ
20 τὸ ἐξ ἵππου ἄρρενος καὶ θήλεος γιγνόμενον. εἰ μὲν γὰρ θάτερον
ἐμίγνυτο μόνον ἐνῆν ἂν λέγειν ὅτι θάτερον αἴτιον τοῦ μὴ γεννᾶν
οὐχ ὅμοιον ὂν τῇ τοῦ ὄνου γονῇ· νῦν δ' οἵᾳπερ οὔσῃ ἐκείνῃ μίγνυται
τοιαύτῃ καὶ τῇ τοῦ συγγενοῦς. ἔτι δ' ἡ μὲν ἀπόδειξις κατ'
ἀμφοτέρων εἴρηται ὁμοίως καὶ τοῦ θήλεος καὶ τοῦ ἄρρενος,
25 —γεννᾷ δ' ὁ ἄρρην ἑπταέτης ὢν μόνος ὥς φασιν, ἀλλ' ἡ
θήλεια ἄγονος ὅλως, καὶ αὕτη τῷ μὴ ἐκτρέφειν εἰς τέλος,
ἐπεὶ ἤδη κύημα ἔσχεν ἡμίονος. Ἴσως δὲ μᾶλλον ἂν δόξειεν
ἀπόδειξις εἶναι πιθανὴ τῶν εἰρημένων λογική—λέγω δὲ λογικὴν
διὰ τοῦτο ὅτι ὅσῳ καθόλου μᾶλλον πορρωτέρω τῶν
30 οἰκείων ἐστὶν ἀρχῶν. ἔστι δὲ τοιαύτη τις· εἰ γὰρ ἐξ ὁμοειδῶν
ἄρρενος καὶ θήλεος ὁμοειδὲς γίγνεσθαι πέφυκε τοῖς γεννήσασιν
ἄρρεν ἢ θῆλυ, οἷον ἐκ κυνὸς ἄρρενος καὶ θήλεος κύων ἄρρην
ἢ θήλεια, καὶ ἐξ ἑτέρων τῷ εἴδει ἕτερον τῷ εἴδει, οἷον εἰ κύων
ἕτερον λέοντος, καὶ ἐκ κυνὸς ἄρρενος καὶ λέοντος θήλεος ἕτερον
35 καὶ ἐκ λέοντος ἄρρενος καὶ κυνὸς θήλεος ἕτερον· ὥστ' ἐπειδὴ
1Now he does not give the correct reason in the case of bronze and tin —(we have spoken of them in the Problems)— nor, to take general ground, does he take his principles from the intelligible. How do the ‘hollows’ and ‘solids’ fit into one another to make the mixing, e.g. in the case 5of wine and water? This saying is quite beyond us; for how we are to understand the ‘hollows’ of the wine and water is too far beyond our perception. Again, when, as a matter of fact, horse is born of horse, ass of ass, and mule of horse and ass in two ways according as the parents are stallion and she-ass or jackass and mare, why in the last case 10does there result something so ‘dense’ that the offspring is sterile, whereas the offspring of male and female horse, male and female ass, is not sterile? And yet the generative fluid of the male and female horse is soft. But both sexes of the horse cross with both sexes of the ass, and the offspring of both crosses are barren, according to Empedocles, 15because from both is produced something ‘dense’, the ‘seeds’ being ‘soft’. If so, the offspring of stallion and mare ought also to be sterile. If one of them alone united with the ass, it might be said that the cause of the mule’s being unable to generate was the unlikeness of that one to the generative fluid of the ass; but, as it is, whatever be the 20character of that generative fluid with which it unites in the ass, such it is also in the animal of its own kind. Then, again, the argument is intended to apply to both male and female mules alike, but the male does generate at seven years of age, it is said; it is the female alone that is entirely sterile, and even she is so only because she does not 25complete the development of the embryo, for a female mule has been known to conceive.
Perhaps an abstract proof might appear to be more plausible than those already given; I call it abstract because the more general it is the further is it removed from the special principles involved. It runs somewhat as follows. From male and female of the same species 30there are born in course of nature male and female of the same species as the parents, e.g. male and female puppies from male and female dog. From parents of different species is born a young one different in species; thus if a dog is different from a lion, the offspring of male dog and lioness or of lion and bitch will be different from both parents.
Perhaps an abstract proof might appear to be more plausible than those already given; I call it abstract because the more general it is the further is it removed from the special principles involved. It runs somewhat as follows. From male and female of the same species 30there are born in course of nature male and female of the same species as the parents, e.g. male and female puppies from male and female dog. From parents of different species is born a young one different in species; thus if a dog is different from a lion, the offspring of male dog and lioness or of lion and bitch will be different from both parents.
748a
1 γίγνεται ἡμίονος ἄρρην καὶ θῆλυς ἀδιαφόρων ὄντων τῷ εἴδει
ἀλλήλοις, γίγνεται δ' ἐξ ἵππου καὶ ὄνον ἡμίονος, ἕτερα δ' ἐστὶ
τῷ εἴδει ταῦτα καὶ οἱ ἡμίονοι, ἀδύνατον γενέσθαι ἐξ ἡμιόνων·
ἕτερον γὰρ γένος οὐχ οἷόν τε διὰ τὸ ἐξ ἄρρενος καὶ θήλεος
5 τῶν ὁμοειδῶν ταὐτὸ γίγνεσθαι τῷ εἴδει, ἡμίονος δ' ὅτι ἐξ
ἵππου καὶ ὄνου γίγνεται ἑτέρων ὄντων τῷ εἴδει, ἐκ δὲ τῶν ἑτέρων
τῷ εἴδει ἕτερον ἐτέθη γίγνεσθαι ζῷον. οὗτος μὲν οὖν ὁ λόγος
καθόλου λίαν καὶ κενός· οἱ γὰρ μὴ ἐκ τῶν οἰκείων ἀρχῶν λόγοι
κενοί, ἀλλὰ δοκοῦσιν εἶναι τῶν πραγμάτων οὐκ ὄντες. οἱ γὰρ
10 ἐκ τῶν ἀρχῶν τῶν γεωμετρικῶν γεωμετρικοί, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ
ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων· τὸ δὲ κενὸν δοκεῖ μὲν εἶναί τι, ἔστι δ' οὐθέν.
οὐκ ἀληθὲς δέ, ὅτι πολλὰ τῶν μὴ <ἐξ> ὁμοειδῶν γενομένων γίγνεται
γόνιμα καθάπερ ἐλέχθη πρότερον. τοῦτον μὲν οὖν τὸν τρόπον
οὔτε περὶ τῶν ἄλλων δεῖ ζητεῖν οὔτε περὶ τῶν φυσικῶν· ἐκ δὲ
15 τῶν ὑπαρχόντων τῷ γένει τῷ τῶν ἵππων καὶ τῷ τῶν ὄνων
θεωρῶν ἄν τις μᾶλλον λάβοι τὴν αἰτίαν, ὅτι πρῶτον μὲν
ἑκάτερον αὐτῶν ἐστι μονοτόκον ἐκ τῶν συγγενῶν ζῴων, ἔπειτ'
οὐ συλληπτικὰ τὰ θήλεα ἐκ τῶν ἀρρένων ἀεί, διόπερ τοὺς
ἵππους διαλείποντες ὀχεύουσι [διὰ τὸ μὴ δύνασθαι συνεχῶς
20 φέρειν]. ἀλλ' ἡ μὲν ἵππος οὐ καταμηνιώδης ἀλλ' ἐλάχιστον
προΐεται τῶν τετραπόδων· ἡ δ' ὄνος οὐ δέχεται τὴν ὀχείαν
ἀλλ' ἐξουρεῖ τὸν γόνον, διὸ μαστιγοῦσιν ἀκολουθοῦντες. ἔτι δὲ
ψυχρὸν [τὸ] ζῷον ὁ ὄνος ἐστί, διόπερ ἐν τοῖς χειμερινοῖς οὐ θέλει
γίγνεσθαι τόποις διὰ τὸ δύσριγον εἶναι τὴν φύσιν, οἷον
25 περὶ Σκύθας καὶ τὴν ὅμορον χώραν, οὐδὲ περὶ Κελτοὺς τοὺς
ὑπὲρ τῆς Ἰβηρίας· ψυχρὰ γὰρ καὶ αὕτη ἡ χώρα. διὰ
ταύτην δὲ τὴν αἰτίαν καὶ τὰ ὀχεῖα ἐπιβάλλουσι τοῖς ὄνοις
οὐχ ὥσπερ τοῖς ἵπποις κατ' ἰσημερίαν ἀλλὰ περὶ τροπὰς
θερινάς, ὅπως ἐν ἀλεεινῇ γίγνηται ὥρᾳ τὰ πωλία· ἐν τῇ αὐτῇ
30 γὰρ γίγνεται ἐν ᾗ ἂν ὀχευθῇ· ἐνιαυτὸν γὰρ κύει καὶ ἵππος
καὶ ὄνος. ὄντος δ' ὥσπερ εἴρηται ψυχροῦ τὴν φύσιν καὶ τὴν
γονὴν ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι τοῦ τοιούτου ψυχράν. σημεῖον δὲ τούτου·
διὰ τοῦτο γάρ, ἐὰν μὲν ἵππος ἀναβῇ ἐπὶ ὠχευμένην ὑπὸ
ὄνου οὐ διαφθείρει τὴν τοῦ ὄνου ὀχείαν, ὁ δ' ὄνος ἐὰν ἐπαναβῇ
35 διαφθείρει τὴν τοῦ ἵππου διὰ ψυχρότητα τὴν τοῦ σπέρματος.
1If this is so, then since (1) mules are produced of both sexes and are not different in species from one another, and (2) a mule is born of horse and ass and these are different in species from mules, it is impossible that anything should be produced from mules. For (1) another kind cannot be, because the 5product of male and female of the same species is also of the same species, and (2) a mule cannot be, because that is the product of horse and ass which are different in form, [and it was laid down that from parents different in form is born a different animal]. Now this theory is too general and empty. For all theories not based on the special principles involved are empty; they only appear 10to be connected with the facts without being so really. As geometrical arguments must start from geometrical principles, so it is with the others; that which is empty may seem to be something, but is really nothing. Now the basis of this particular theory is not true, for many animals of different species are fertile with one another, as was said before. So we must not inquire into 15questions of natural science in this fashion any more than any other questions; we shall be more likely to find the reason by considering the facts peculiar to the two kinds concerned, horse and ass. In the first place, each of them, if mated with its own kind, bears only one young one; secondly, the females are not always able to conceive from the male (wherefore breeders put the horse 20to the mare again at intervals). Indeed, both the mare is deficient in catamenia, discharging less than any other quadruped, and the she-ass does not admit the impregnation, but ejects the semen with her urine, wherefore men follow flogging her after intercourse. Again the ass is an animal of cold nature, and so is not wont to be produced in wintry regions because it cannot bear cold, 25as in Scythia and the neighbouring country and among the Celts beyond Iberia, for this country also is cold. For this cause they do not put the jackasses to the females at the equinox, as they do with horses, but about the summer solstice, in order that the ass-foals may be born in a warm season, for the mothers bear at the same season as that in which they are impregnated, the period of 30gestation in both horse and ass being one year. The animal, then, being, as has been said of such a cold nature, its semen also must be cold. A proof of this is that if a horse mount a female already impregnated by an ass he does not destroy the impregnation of the ass, but if the ass be the second to mount her he does destroy that of the horse because of the coldness of his own semen.
748b
1 ὅταν μὲν οὖν ἀλλήλοις μιχθῶσι σώζεται διὰ τὴν θατέρου
θερμότητα· θερμότερον γὰρ τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἵππου ἀποκρινόμενον·
ἡ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ ὄνου ψυχρὰ καὶ ἡ ὕλη καὶ ἡ γονή, ἡ δὲ τοῦ
ἵππου θερμοτέρα. ὅταν δὲ μιχθῇ ἢ θερμὸν ἐπὶ ψυχρὸν ἢ
5 ψυχρὸν ἐπὶ θερμὸν συμβαίνει αὐτὸ μὲν τὸ ἐκ τούτων κύημα
γενόμενον σώζεσθαι καὶ ταῦτ' ἐξ ἀλλήλων εἶναι γόνιμα, τὸ δ'
ἐκ τούτων μηκέτι γόνιμον ἀλλ' ἄγονον εἰς τελειογονίαν. Ὅλως
δ' ὑπάρχοντος ἑκατέρου εὐφυοῦς πρὸς ἀγονίαν, τῷ τε γὰρ ὄνῳ
ὑπάρχει τὰ ἄλλα τὰ εἰρημένα, καὶ ἐὰν μὴ μετὰ τὸν βόλον
10 τὸν πρῶτον ἄρξηται γεννᾶν οὐκέτι γεννᾷ τὸ παράπαν· οὕτως
ἐπὶ μικροῦ ἔχεται τὸ ἄγονον εἶναι τὸ σῶμα τῶν ὄνων. ὁμοίως
δὲ καὶ ὁ ἵππος· εὐφυὴς γὰρ πρὸς ἀγονίαν καὶ τοσοῦτον
λείπει τοῦ ἄγονος εἶναι ὅσον τὸ γενέσθαι τὸ ἐκ τούτου ψυχρότερον·
τοῦτο δὲ γίγνεται ὅταν μιχθῇ τῇ τοῦ ὄνου ἀποκρίσει. καὶ
15 ὁ ὄνος δὲ ὡσαύτως μικροῦ δεῖν κατὰ τὸν οἰκεῖον συνδυασμὸν
ἄγονον γεννᾷ, ὥστε ὅταν προσγένηται τὸ παρὰ φύσιν, εἰ τότε
ἑνὸς μόλις γεννητικὸν ἐξ ἀλλήλων ἦν, τὸ ἐκ τούτων ἔτι μᾶλλον
ἄγονον καὶ παρὰ φύσιν οὐθενὸς δεήσει τοῦ ἄγονον εἶναι
ἀλλ' ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἔσται ἄγονον. Συμβαίνει δὲ καὶ τὰ σώματα
20 τῶν ἡμιόνων μεγάλα γίγνεσθαι διὰ τὸ τὴν ἀπόκρισιν τὴν
εἰς τὰ καταμήνια τρέπεσθαι εἰς τὴν αὔξησιν. ἐπεὶ δ' ἐνιαύσιος
ὁ τοκετὸς τῶν τοιούτων οὐ μόνον συλλαβεῖν δεῖ τὴν ἡμίονον
ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐκθρέψαι· τοῦτο δ' ἀδύνατον μὴ γιγνομένων καταμηνίων.
ταῖς δ' ἡμιόνοις οὐ γίγνεται, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν ἄχρηστον
25 μετὰ τοῦ περιττώματος τοῦ ἐκ τῆς κύστεως ἐκκρίνεται (διόπερ
οὐδὲ τῶν ἄρθρων οἱ ἡμίονοι οἱ ἄρρενες ὀσφραίνονται τῶν θηλειῶν
ὥσπερ τἆλλα τὰ μώνυχα, ἀλλ' αὐτοῦ τοῦ περιττώματος),
τὰ δ' ἄλλα τρέπεται εἰς τὴν τοῦ σώματος αὔξησιν καὶ τὸ μέγεθος.
ὥστε συλλαβεῖν μὲν ἐνδέχεταί ποτε τὴν θήλειαν, ὅπερ
30 ἤδη φαίνεται γεγονός, ἐκθρέψαι δὲ καὶ ἐξενεγκεῖν εἰς τέλος
ἀδύνατον. ὁ δ' ἄρρην ποτὲ γεννήσειεν ἂν διά τε τὸ θερμότερον
εἶναι τοῦ θήλεος φύσει τὸ ἄρρεν καὶ διὰ τὸ μὴ συμβάλλεσθαι
πρὸς τὴν μίξιν σῶμα μηδὲν τὸ ἄρρεν. τὸ δ' ἀποτελεσθὲν
γίγνεται γίννος. τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶν ἡμίονος ἀνάπηρος· καὶ γὰρ
35 ἐκ τοῦ ἵππου καὶ τοῦ ὄνου γίγνονται γίννοι ὅταν νοσήσῃ τὸ κύημα
1When, therefore, they unite with each other, the generative elements are preserved by the heat of the one of them, that contributed by the horse being the hotter; for in the ass both the semen of the male and the material contributed by the female are cold, and those of the horse, in both sexes, are hotter. Now 5when either hot is added to cold or cold to hot so as to mix, the result is that the embryo itself arising from these is preserved and thus these animals are fertile when crossed with one another, but the animal produced by them is no longer fertile but unable to produce perfect offspring.
And in general each of these animals naturally tends towards sterility. The ass has all the disadvantages 10already mentioned, and if it should not begin to generate after the first shedding of teeth, it no longer generates at all; so near is the constitution of the ass to being sterile. The horse is much the same; it tends naturally towards sterility, and to make it entirely so it is only necessary that its generative secretion should become colder; now this is what happens to it when 15mixed with the corresponding secretion of the ass. The ass in like manner comes very near generating a sterile animal when mated with its own species. Thus when the difficulty of a cross contrary to nature is added, (when too even in the other case when united with their own species they with difficulty produce a single young one), the result of the cross, being still more sterile and contrary 20to nature, will need nothing further to make it sterile, but will be so of necessity.
We find also that the bodies of female mules grow large because the matter which is secreted in other animals to form the catamenia is diverted to growth. But since the period of gestation in such animals is a year, the mule must not only conceive, if she is to be fertile, but must also nourish the 25embryo till birth, and this is impossible if there are no catamenia. But there are none in the mule; the useless part of the nutriment is discharged with the excretion from the bladder — this is why male mules do not smell to the pudenda of the females, as do the other solid-hoofed ungulates, but only to the evacuation itself — and the rest of the nutriment is used up to increase the size 30of the body. Hence it is sometimes possible for the female to conceive, as has been known to happen before now, but it is impossible for her to complete the process of nourishing the embryo and bringing it to birth.
The male, again, may sometimes generate, both because the male sex is naturally hotter than the female and because it does not contribute any material substance to the mixture.
And in general each of these animals naturally tends towards sterility. The ass has all the disadvantages 10already mentioned, and if it should not begin to generate after the first shedding of teeth, it no longer generates at all; so near is the constitution of the ass to being sterile. The horse is much the same; it tends naturally towards sterility, and to make it entirely so it is only necessary that its generative secretion should become colder; now this is what happens to it when 15mixed with the corresponding secretion of the ass. The ass in like manner comes very near generating a sterile animal when mated with its own species. Thus when the difficulty of a cross contrary to nature is added, (when too even in the other case when united with their own species they with difficulty produce a single young one), the result of the cross, being still more sterile and contrary 20to nature, will need nothing further to make it sterile, but will be so of necessity.
We find also that the bodies of female mules grow large because the matter which is secreted in other animals to form the catamenia is diverted to growth. But since the period of gestation in such animals is a year, the mule must not only conceive, if she is to be fertile, but must also nourish the 25embryo till birth, and this is impossible if there are no catamenia. But there are none in the mule; the useless part of the nutriment is discharged with the excretion from the bladder — this is why male mules do not smell to the pudenda of the females, as do the other solid-hoofed ungulates, but only to the evacuation itself — and the rest of the nutriment is used up to increase the size 30of the body. Hence it is sometimes possible for the female to conceive, as has been known to happen before now, but it is impossible for her to complete the process of nourishing the embryo and bringing it to birth.
The male, again, may sometimes generate, both because the male sex is naturally hotter than the female and because it does not contribute any material substance to the mixture.
749a
1 ἐν τῇ ὑστέρᾳ. ἔστι γὰρ ὁ γίννος ὥσπερ τὰ μετάχοιρα ἐν τοῖς
χοίροις· καὶ γὰρ ἐκεῖ τὸ πηρωθὲν ἐν τῇ ὑστέρᾳ καλεῖται μετάχοιρον,
γίγνεται δὲ τοιοῦτος ὃς ἂν τύχῃ τῶν χοίρων. ὁμοίως
δὲ γίγνονται καὶ οἱ πυγμαῖοι· καὶ γὰρ οὗτοι πηροῦνται τὰ μέρη
5 καὶ τὸ μέγεθος ἐν τῇ κυήσει καί εἰσιν ὥσπερ μετάχοιρα
καὶ γίννοι.
1The result in such cases is a ‘ginnus’, that is to say, a dwarf mule; for ‘ginni’ are produced also from the crossing of horse and ass when the embryo is diseased in the uterus. The ginnus is in fact like the so-called ‘metachoera’ in swine, for a ‘metachoerum’ also is a pig injured in the uterus; this may happen to any pig. The origin of human dwarfs is similar, for these also have 5their parts and their whole development injured during gestation, and resemble ginni and metachoera.