Jaeger (Teubner, 1913) · Farquharson (1912)
Farquharson (1912)
Greek line numbers are exact. The translations carry no Bekker numbers of their own, so those beside the English are aligned to the Greek: upright = fixed (anchored to this point in the text), italic grey = approximate (interpolated estimate).
Chapter 1 (704a4–704b11)
704a
Περὶ δὲ τῶν χρησίμων μορίων τοῖς ζῴοις πρὸς τὴν κίνησιν
5 τὴν κατὰ τόπον ἐπισκεπτέον διὰ τίνα αἰτίαν τοιοῦτόν ἐστιν
ἕκαστον αὐτῶν καὶ τίνος ἕνεκεν ὑπάρχει αὐτοῖς, ἔτι δὲ περὶ
τῶν διαφορῶν τῶν τε πρὸς ἄλληλα τοῖς τοῦ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἑνὸς
ζῴου μορίοις καὶ πρὸς τὰ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν τῷ γένει διαφόρων.
πρῶτον δὲ λάβωμεν περὶ ὅσων ἐπισκεπτέον. ἔστι δὲ
10 αὐτῶν ἓν μὲν πόσοις ἐλαχίστοις τὰ ζῷα κινεῖται σημείοις,
ἔπειτα διὰ τί τὰ μὲν ἔναιμα τέτταρσι τὰ δ' ἄναιμα πλείοσι,
καὶ καθόλου δὲ διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν τὰ μὲν ἄποδα τὰ δὲ
δίποδα τὰ δὲ τετράποδα τὰ δὲ πολύποδα τῶν ζῴων ἐστί,
καὶ διὰ τί πάντα ἀρτίους ἔχει τοὺς πόδας, ὅσαπερ ἔχει πόδας
15 αὐτῶν, ὅλως δ' οἷς κινεῖται σημείοις, ἄρτια ταῦτ' ἐστιν·
ἔτι δὲ διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν ἄνθρωπος μὲν καὶ ὄρνις δίπους, οἱ δ'
ἰχθύες ἄποδές εἰσι· καὶ τὰς κάμψεις ὅ τε ἄνθρωπος καὶ
ὁ ὄρνις δίποδες ὄντες ἐναντίας ἔχουσι τῶν σκελῶν (ὁ μὲν
γὰρ ἄνθρωπος ἐπὶ τὴν περιφέρειαν κάμπτει τὸ σκέλος, ὁ
20 δ' ὄρνις ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον. καὶ ὁ ἄνθρωπος αὐτὸς ἑαυτῷ ἐναντίως
τὰ σκέλη καὶ τοὺς βραχίονας· τοὺς μὲν γὰρ ἐπὶ τὸ
κοῖλον, τὰ δὲ γόνατα ἐπὶ τὴν περιφέρειαν κάμπτει. καὶ
τὰ τετράποδα τὰ ζῳοτόκα τοῖς τ' ἀνθρώποις ἐναντίως κάμπτει
καὶ αὐτὰ αὑτοῖς· τὰ μὲν γὰρ πρόσθια σκέλη ἐπὶ τὸ
We have now to consider the parts which are useful to 5animals for movement in place (locomotion); first, why each part is such as it is and to what end they possess them; and second, the differences between these parts both in one and the same creature, and again by comparison of the parts of creatures of different species with one another. 10First then let us lay down how many questions we have to consider.
The first is what are the fewest points of motion necessary to animal progression, the second why sanguineous animals have four points and not more, but bloodless animals more than four, and generally why some animals are 15footless, others bipeds, others quadrupeds, others polypods, and why all have an even number of feet, if they have feet at all; why in fine the points on which progression depends are even in number.
Next, why are man and bird bipeds, but fish footless; and why do man and bird, though both 20bipeds, have an opposite curvature of the legs. For man bends his legs convexly, a bird has his bent concavely; again, man bends his arms and legs in opposite directions, for he has his arms bent convexly, but his legs concavely.
The first is what are the fewest points of motion necessary to animal progression, the second why sanguineous animals have four points and not more, but bloodless animals more than four, and generally why some animals are 15footless, others bipeds, others quadrupeds, others polypods, and why all have an even number of feet, if they have feet at all; why in fine the points on which progression depends are even in number.
Next, why are man and bird bipeds, but fish footless; and why do man and bird, though both 20bipeds, have an opposite curvature of the legs. For man bends his legs convexly, a bird has his bent concavely; again, man bends his arms and legs in opposite directions, for he has his arms bent convexly, but his legs concavely.
704b
κυρτὸν τῆς περιφερείας κάμπτει, τὰ δ' ὀπίσθια ἐπὶ τὸ
5 κοῖλον. ἔτι δὲ τῶν τετραπόδων ὅσα μὴ ζῳοτοκεῖ ἀλλ' ᾠοτοκεῖ,
ἰδίως καὶ εἰς τὸ πλάγιον κάμπτει) πρὸς δὲ τούτοις
διὰ τίν' αἰτίαν τὰ τετράποδα κινεῖται κατὰ διάμετρον·
περὶ δὴ πάντων τούτων, καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα συγγενῆ τούτοις,
τὰς αἰτίας θεωρητέον. ὅτι μὲν οὖν οὕτω ταῦτα συμβαίνει,
10 δῆλον ἐκ τῆς ἱστορίας τῆς φυσικῆς, διότι δέ, νῦν
σκεπτέον.
And a viviparous quadruped bends his limbs in opposite directions 5to a man's, and in opposite directions to one another; for he has his forelegs bent convexly, his hind legs concavely. Again, quadrupeds which are not viviparous but oviparous have a peculiar curvature of the limbs laterally away from the body. Again, why do quadrupeds move their legs criss-cross?
We have to examine the reasons for 10all these facts, and others cognate to them; that the facts are such is clear from our Natural History, we have now to ask reasons for the facts.
We have to examine the reasons for 10all these facts, and others cognate to them; that the facts are such is clear from our Natural History, we have now to ask reasons for the facts.
Chapter 2 (704b12–705a2)
Ἀρχὴ δὲ τῆς σκέψεως ὑποθεμένοις οἷς εἰώθαμεν χρῆσθαι
πολλάκις πρὸς τὴν μέθοδον τὴν φυσικήν, λαβόντες τὰ
τοῦτον ἔχοντα τὸν τρόπον ἐν πᾶσι τοῖς τῆς φύσεως ἔργοις,
15 τούτων δ' ἓν μέν ἐστιν ὅτι ἡ φύσις οὐθὲν ποιεῖ μάτην, ἀλλ'
ἀεὶ ἐκ τῶν ἐνδεχομένων τῇ οὐσίᾳ περὶ ἕκαστον γένος ζῴου
τὸ ἄριστον· διόπερ εἰ βέλτιον ὡδί, οὕτως καὶ ἔχει κατὰ
φύσιν. ἔτι τὰς διαστάσεις τοῦ μεγέθους, πόσαι καὶ ποῖαι
ποίοις ὑπάρχουσι, δεῖ λαβεῖν. εἰσὶ γὰρ διαστάσεις μὲν ἕξ,
20 συζυγίαι δὲ τρεῖς, μία μὲν τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω, δευτέρα
δὲ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν, τρίτη δὲ τὸ δεξιὸν καὶ τὸ
ἀριστερόν. πρὸς δὲ τούτοις ὅτι τῶν κινήσεων τῶν κατὰ τόπον
ἀρχαὶ ὦσις καὶ ἕλξις. καθ' αὑτὰς μὲν οὖν αὗται,
κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς δὲ κινεῖται τὸ φερόμενον ὑπ' ἄλλου· οὐ
At the beginning of the inquiry we must postulate the principles we are accustomed constantly to use for our scientific investigation of nature, that is we must take for granted principles 15of this universal character which appear in all Nature's work. Of these one is that Nature creates nothing without a purpose, but always the best possible in each kind of living creature by reference to its essential constitution. Accordingly if one way is better than another that is the way of Nature. Next we must take for granted 20the different species of dimensions which inhere in various things; of these there are three pairs of two each, superior and inferior, before and behind, to the right and to the left. Further we must assume that the originals of movements in place are thrusts and pulls.
705a
1 γὰρ αὐτὸ δοκεῖ κινεῖν αὑτό, ἀλλ' ὑπ' ἄλλου κινεῖσθαι τὸ
ὑπό τινος φερόμενον.
1(These are the essential place-movements, it is only accidentally that what is carried by another is moved; it is not thought to move itself, but to be moved by something else.)
Chapter 3 (705a3–25)
Τούτων δὲ διωρισμένων λέγωμεν τὰ τούτων ἐφεξῆς. τῶν
δὴ ζῴων ὅσα μεταβάλλει κατὰ τόπον, τὰ μὲν ἀθρόῳ
5 παντὶ τῷ σώματι μεταβάλλει, καθάπερ τὰ ἁλλόμενα,
τὰ δὲ μορίοις, καθάπερ τῶν πορευομένων ἕκαστον. ἐν ἀμφοτέραις
δὲ ταῖς μεταβολαῖς ταύταις ἀεὶ μεταβάλλει τὸ
κινούμενον ἀποστηριζόμενον πρὸς τὸ ὑποκείμενον αὐτῷ. διόπερ
ἐάν τε ὑποφέρηται τοῦτο θᾶττον ἢ ὥστ' ἔχειν ἀπερείσασθαι
10 τὸ ποιούμενον ἐπ' αὐτοῦ τὴν κίνησιν, ἐάν θ' ὅλως μηδεμίαν
ἔχῃ τοῖς κινουμένοις ἀντέρεισιν, οὐθὲν ἐπ' αὐτοῦ δύναται κινεῖν
ἑαυτό. καὶ γὰρ τὸ ἁλλόμενον καὶ πρὸς αὐτὸ ἀπερειδόμενον
τὸ ἄνω καὶ πρὸς τὸ ὑπὸ τοὺς πόδας ποιεῖται τὴν ἅλσιν·
ἔχει γάρ τινα ἀντέρεισιν πρὸς ἄλληλα τὰ μόρια ἐν
15 ταῖς καμπαῖς, καὶ ὅλως τὸ πιέζον πρὸς τὸ πιεζόμενον.
διὸ καὶ οἱ πένταθλοι ἅλλονται πλέον ἔχοντες τοὺς ἁλτῆρας
ἢ μὴ ἔχοντες, καὶ οἱ θέοντες θᾶττον θέουσι παρασείοντες
τὰς χεῖρας· γίνεται γάρ τις ἀπέρεισις ἐν τῇ διατάσει
πρὸς τὰς χεῖρας καὶ τοὺς καρπούς. ἀεὶ δὲ τὸ κινούμενον δυσὶν
20 ἐλαχίστοις χρώμενον ὀργανικοῖς μέρεσι ποιεῖται τὴν μεταβολήν,
τῷ μὲν ὡσπερανεὶ θλίβοντι, τῷ δὲ θλιβομένῳ.
τὸ μὲν γὰρ μένον θλίβεται διὰ τὸ φέρειν, τὸ δ' αἰρόμενον
τείνεται τῷ φέροντι τὸ φορτίον. διόπερ ἀμερὲς οὐδὲν οὕτω
κινηθῆναι δυνατόν· οὐ γὰρ ἔχει τήν τε τοῦ πεισομένου καὶ τὴν τοῦ
25 ποιήσοντος ἐν αὑτῷ διάληψιν.
After these preliminaries, we go on to the next questions in order.
Now of animals which change their position 5some move with the whole body at once, for example jumping animals, others move one part first and then the other, for example walking (and running) animals. In both these changes the moving creature always changes its position by pressing against what lies below it. Accordingly if what is below gives way too quickly for that which is moving upon it 10to lean against it, or if it affords no resistance at all to what is moving, the latter can of itself effect no movement upon it. For an animal which jumps makes its jump both by leaning against its own upper part and also against what is beneath its feet; for at the joints the parts do in a sense lean upon one another, and in general that which pushes 15down leans upon what is pushed down. That is why athletes jump further with weights in their hands than without, and runners run faster if they swing their arms; there is in extending the arms a kind of leaning against the hands and wrists. In all cases then that which moves makes its change of position by the use of at least two parts of the body; one 20part so to speak squeezes, the other is squeezed; for the part that is still is squeezed as it has to carry the weight, the part that is lifted strains against that which carries the weight. It follows then that nothing without parts can move itself in this way, for it has not in it the distinction of the part which is passive and that which is active.
Now of animals which change their position 5some move with the whole body at once, for example jumping animals, others move one part first and then the other, for example walking (and running) animals. In both these changes the moving creature always changes its position by pressing against what lies below it. Accordingly if what is below gives way too quickly for that which is moving upon it 10to lean against it, or if it affords no resistance at all to what is moving, the latter can of itself effect no movement upon it. For an animal which jumps makes its jump both by leaning against its own upper part and also against what is beneath its feet; for at the joints the parts do in a sense lean upon one another, and in general that which pushes 15down leans upon what is pushed down. That is why athletes jump further with weights in their hands than without, and runners run faster if they swing their arms; there is in extending the arms a kind of leaning against the hands and wrists. In all cases then that which moves makes its change of position by the use of at least two parts of the body; one 20part so to speak squeezes, the other is squeezed; for the part that is still is squeezed as it has to carry the weight, the part that is lifted strains against that which carries the weight. It follows then that nothing without parts can move itself in this way, for it has not in it the distinction of the part which is passive and that which is active.
Chapter 4 (705a26–706a25)
Ἐπεὶ δ' εἰσὶν αἱ διαστάσεις τὸν ἀριθμὸν ἕξ, αἷς ὁρίζεσθαι
πέφυκε τὰ ζῷα, τό τε ἄνω καὶ κάτω καὶ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν
καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν, ἔτι δὲ τὸ δεξιὸν καὶ τὸ ἀριστερόν, τὸ μὲν
ἄνω καὶ κάτω μόριον πάντ' ἔχει τὰ ζῶντα. οὐ μόνον γὰρ
30 ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις ἐστὶ τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν τοῖς
φυτοῖς. διείληπται δ' ἔργῳ, καὶ οὐ θέσει μόνον τῇ πρός τε
τὴν γῆν καὶ τὸν οὐρανόν. ὅθεν μὲν γὰρ ἡ τῆς τροφῆς διάδοσις
καὶ ἡ αὔξησις ἑκάστοις, ἄνω τοῦτ' ἐστι· πρὸς ὃ δ'
25Again, the boundaries by which living beings are naturally determined are six in number, superior and inferior, before and behind, right and left. Of these all living beings have a superior and an inferior part; for superior and inferior is in plants too, not only in animals. And this distinction is one of function, not merely of position relatively to our 30earth and the sky above our heads. The superior is that from which flows in each kind the distribution of nutriment and the process of growth; the inferior is that to which the process flows and in which it ends.
705b
1 ἔσχατον αὕτη περαίνει, τοῦτο κάτω. τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχή τις,
τὸ δὲ πέρας· ἀρχὴ δὲ τὸ ἄνω. καίτοι δόξειέ γ' ἂν τοῖς φυτοῖς
οἰκεῖον εἶναι τὸ κάτω μᾶλλον· οὐχ ὁμοίως γὰρ ἔχει
τῇ θέσει τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω τούτοις καὶ τοῖς ζῴοις. ἔχει δὲ
5 πρὸς μὲν τὸ ὅλον οὐχ ὁμοίως, κατὰ δὲ τὸ ἔργον ὁμοίως.
αἱ γὰρ ῥίζαι εἰσὶ τὸ ἄνω τοῖς φυτοῖς· ἐκεῖθεν γὰρ ἡ τροφὴ
διαδίδοται τοῖς φυομένοις, καὶ λαμβάνει ταύταις αὐτήν,
καθάπερ τὰ ζῷα τοῖς στόμασιν. ὅσα δὲ μὴ μόνον ζῇ
ἀλλὰ καὶ ζῷά ἐστι, τοῖς τοιούτοις ὑπάρχει τό τε ἔμπροσθεν
10 καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν. αἴσθησιν γὰρ ἔχει ταῦτα πάντα,
ὁρίζεται δὲ κατὰ ταύτην τό τε ὄπισθεν καὶ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν·
ἐφ' ὃ μὲν γὰρ ἡ αἴσθησις πέφυκε καὶ ὅθεν ἐστὶν ἑκάστοις,
ἔμπροσθεν ταῦτ' ἐστι, τὰ δ' ἀντικείμενα τούτοις ὄπισθεν. ὅσα
δὲ τῶν ζῴων μὴ μόνον αἰσθήσεως κοινωνεῖ, ἀλλὰ δύναται
15 ποιεῖσθαι τὴν κατὰ τόπον μεταβολὴν αὐτὰ δι' αὑτῶν, ἐν
τούτοις δὴ διώρισται πρὸς τοῖς λεχθεῖσι τό τ' ἀριστερὸν καὶ
τὸ δεξιὸν ὁμοίως τοῖς πρότερον εἰρημένοις, ἔργῳ τινὶ καὶ οὐ
θέσει διωρισμένον ἑκάτερον αὐτῶν· ὅθεν μὲν γάρ ἐστι τοῦ σώματος
ἡ τῆς κατὰ τόπον μεταβολῆς ἀρχὴ φύσει, τοῦτο
20 μὲν δεξιὸν ἑκάστων, τὸ δ' ἀντικείμενον καὶ τούτῳ πεφυκὸς
ἀκολουθεῖν ἀριστερόν. τοῦτο δὲ διήρθρωται μᾶλλον ἑτέροις ἑτέρων.
ὅσα μὲν γὰρ ὀργανικοῖς μέρεσι χρώμενα (λέγω δ'
οἷον ποσὶν ἢ πτέρυξιν ἤ τινι ἄλλῳ τοιούτῳ) τὴν εἰρημένην
μεταβολὴν ποιεῖται, περὶ μὲν τὰ τοιαῦτα μᾶλλον διήρθρωται
25 τὸ λεχθέν· ὅσα δὲ μὴ τοιούτοις μορίοις, αὐτῷ δὲ
τῷ σώματι διαλήψεις ποιούμενα προέρχεται, καθάπερ ἔνια
τῶν ἀπόδων, οἷον οἵ τε ὄφεις καὶ τὸ τῶν καμπῶν γένος,
καὶ πρὸς τούτοις ἃ καλοῦσι ἔντερα γῆς, ὑπάρχει μὲν καὶ
ἐν τούτοις τὸ λεχθέν, οὐ μὴν διασεσάψηταί γ' ὁμοίως. ὅτι
30 δ' ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεώς ἐστι, σημεῖον καὶ
τὸ φέρειν τὰ φορτία πάντας ἐπὶ τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς· οὕτως γὰρ
ἐνδέχεται κινεῖσθαι τὸ φέρον, λελυμένου τοῦ κινήσοντος.
διὸ καὶ ἀσκωλιάζουσι ῥᾷον ἐπὶ τοῖς ἀριστεροῖς· κινεῖν γὰρ
1One is a starting-point, the other an end, and the starting-point is the superior. And yet it might be thought that in the case of plants at least the inferior is rather the appropriate starting-point, for in them the superior and inferior are in position other than in animals. 5Still they are similarly situated from the point of view of function, though not in their position relatively to the universe. The roots are the superior part of a plant, for from them the nutriment is distributed to the growing members, and a plant takes it with its roots as an animal does with its mouth.
Things that are not only alive but are 10animals have both a front and a back, because they all have sense, and front and back are distinguished by reference to sense. The front is the part in which sense is innate, and whence each thing gets its sensations, the opposite parts are the back.
All animals which partake not only in sense, but are able of themselves to make a change of place, 15have a further distinction of left and right besides those already enumerated; like the former these are distinctions of function and not of position. The right is that from which change of position naturally begins, the opposite which naturally depends upon this is the left.
This distinction (of right and left) is more articulate and detailed in 20some than in others. For animals which make the aforesaid change (of place) by the help of organized parts (I mean feet for example, or wings or similar organs) have the left and right distinguished in greater detail, while those which are not differentiated into such parts, but make the differentiation in the body itself and so progress, like 25some footless animals (for example snakes and caterpillars after their kind, and besides what men call earth-worms), all these have the distinction spoken of, although it is not made so manifest to us. That the beginning of movement is on the right is indicated by the fact that all men carry burdens on the left shoulder; in this way they set free 30the side which initiates movement and enable the side which bears the weight to be moved. And so men hop easier on the left leg; for the nature of the right is to initiate movement, that of the left to be moved.
Things that are not only alive but are 10animals have both a front and a back, because they all have sense, and front and back are distinguished by reference to sense. The front is the part in which sense is innate, and whence each thing gets its sensations, the opposite parts are the back.
All animals which partake not only in sense, but are able of themselves to make a change of place, 15have a further distinction of left and right besides those already enumerated; like the former these are distinctions of function and not of position. The right is that from which change of position naturally begins, the opposite which naturally depends upon this is the left.
This distinction (of right and left) is more articulate and detailed in 20some than in others. For animals which make the aforesaid change (of place) by the help of organized parts (I mean feet for example, or wings or similar organs) have the left and right distinguished in greater detail, while those which are not differentiated into such parts, but make the differentiation in the body itself and so progress, like 25some footless animals (for example snakes and caterpillars after their kind, and besides what men call earth-worms), all these have the distinction spoken of, although it is not made so manifest to us. That the beginning of movement is on the right is indicated by the fact that all men carry burdens on the left shoulder; in this way they set free 30the side which initiates movement and enable the side which bears the weight to be moved. And so men hop easier on the left leg; for the nature of the right is to initiate movement, that of the left to be moved.
706a
1 πέφυκε τὸ δεξιόν, κινεῖσθαι δὲ τὸ ἀριστερόν· ὥστε καὶ τὸ
φορτίον οὐκ ἐπὶ τῷ κινήσοντι ἀλλ' ἐπὶ τῷ κινησομένῳ δεῖ
ἐπικεῖσθαι· ἐὰν δ' ἐπὶ τῷ κινοῦντι καὶ τῇ ἀρχῇ τῆς κινήσεως
ἐπιτεθῇ, ἤτοι ὅλως οὐ κινήσεται ἢ χαλεπώτερον. σημεῖον
5 δ' ὅτι ἀπὸ τῶν δεξιῶν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως καὶ αἱ
προβολαί· πάντες γὰρ τὰ ἀριστερὰ προβάλλονται, καὶ
ἑστῶτες προβεβλήκασι τὰ ἀριστερὰ μᾶλλον, ἂν μὴ ἀπὸ
τύχης συμβῇ. οὐ γὰρ τῷ προβεβηκότι κινοῦνται, ἀλλὰ τῷ
ἀποβεβηκότι· καὶ ἀμύνονται τοῖς δεξιοῖς. διὰ ταύτην δὲ
10 τὴν αἰτίαν καὶ τὰ δεξιὰ ταὐτά ἐστι πάντων. ὅθεν μὲν γὰρ
ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως, τὸ αὐτὸ πᾶσι καὶ ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ τὴν
θέσιν ἔχει κατὰ φύσιν· δεξιὸν δ' ἐστὶν ὅθεν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς
κινήσεώς ἐστι. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο τὰ στρομβώδη τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων
δεξιὰ πάντ' ἐστιν. οὐ γὰρ ἐπὶ τὴν ἑλίκην κινεῖται, ἀλλ'
15 ἐπὶ τὸ καταντικρὺ πάντα προέρχονται, οἷον πορφύραι καὶ
κήρυκες. κινουμένων οὖν πάντων ἀπὸ τῶν δεξιῶν, κἀκείνων
ἐπὶ ταὐτὰ κινουμένων ἑαυτοῖς, ἀνάγκη πάντα δεξιὰ εἶναι
ὁμοίως. ἀπολελυμένα δ' ἔχουσι τὰ ἀριστερὰ τῶν ζῴων μάλιστα
ἄνθρωποι διὰ τὸ κατὰ φύσιν ἔχειν μάλιστα τῶν
20 ζῴων· φύσει δὲ βέλτιον τὸ δεξιὸν τοῦ ἀριστεροῦ
κεχωρισμένον. διὸ καὶ τὰ δεξιὰ ἐν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις μάλιστα
δεξιά ἐστι. διωρισμένων δὲ τῶν δεξιῶν εὐλόγως τὰ ἀριστερὰ
ἀκινητότερά ἐστι, καὶ ἀπολελυμένα μάλιστα ἐν τούτοις.
καὶ αἱ ἄλλαι δ' ἀρχαὶ μάλιστα κατὰ φύσιν καὶ διωρισμέναι
25 ἐν τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ ὑπάρχουσι, τό τ' ἄνω καὶ τὸ
ἔμπροσθεν.
1The burden then must rest on the side which is to be moved, not on that which is going to cause movement, and if it be set on the moving side, which is the original of movement, it will either not be moved at all or with more labour. Another indication that the right is the source 5of movement is the way we put our feet forward; all men lead off with the left, and after standing still prefer to put the left foot forward, unless something happens to prevent it. The reason is that their movement comes from the leg they step off, not from the one put forward. Again, men guard themselves with their right. And this is the reason 10why the right is the same in all, for that from which motion begins is the same for all, and has its natural position in the same place, and for this reason the spiral-shaped Testaceans have their shells on the right, for they do not move in the direction of the spire, but all go forward in the direction opposite to the spire. Examples are the 15murex and the ceryx. As all animals then start movement from the right, and the right moves in the same direction as the whole, it is necessary for all to be alike right-handed. And man has the left limbs detached more than any other animal because he is natural in a higher degree than the other animals; now the right is naturally both better than 20the left and separate from it, and so in man the right is more especially the right, more dextrous that is, than in other animals. The right then being differentiated it is only reasonable that in man the left should be most movable, and most detached. In man, too, the other starting-points are found most naturally and clearly distinct, the superior 25part that is and the front.
Chapter 5 (706a26–706b16)
ὅσοις μὲν οὖν τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν διώρισται,
καθάπερ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις καὶ τοῖς ὄρνισι, ταῦτα μὲν δίποδα.
(τῶν δὲ τεττάρων τὰ δύο σημεῖα τοῖς μὲν πτέρυγες τοῖς
δὲ χεῖρες καὶ βραχίονές εἰσιν), ὅσα δ' ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ τὸ
30 πρόσθεν ἔχει καὶ τὸ ἄνω, τετράποδα καὶ πολύποδα καὶ
ἄποδα. καλῶ γὰρ πόδα μέρος ἐπὶ σημείῳ πεζῷ κινητικῷ
κατὰ τόπον· καὶ γὰρ τὸ ὄνομα ἐοίκασιν εἰληφέναι ἀπὸ τοῦ
πέδου οἱ πόδες. ἔνια δ' ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ ἔχει τὸ πρόσθιον καὶ
Animals which, like men and birds, have the superior part distinguished from the front are two-footed (biped). In them, of the four points of motion, two are wings in the one, hands and arms in the other. Animals which have the superior and the front parts identically situated are four-footed, many-footed, or footless 30(quadruped, polypod, limbless). I use the term foot for a member employed for movement in place connected with a point on the ground, for the feet appear to have got their name from the ground under our feet.
706b
1 τὸ ὀπίσθιον, οἷον τά τε μαλάκια καὶ τὰ στρομβώδη τῶν
ὀστρακοδέρμων· εἴρηται δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν πρότερον ἐν ἑτέροις.
τριῶν δ' ὄντων τόπων, τοῦ ἄνω καὶ μέσου καὶ κάτω, τὰ
μὲν δίποδα τὸ ἄνω πρὸς τὸ τοῦ ὅλου ἄνω ἔχει, τὰ δὲ πολύποδα
5 ἢ ἄποδα πρὸς τὸ μέσον, τὰ δὲ φυτὰ πρὸς τὸ
κάτω. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι τὰ μὲν ἀκίνητα, πρὸς τὴν τροφὴν δὲ
τὸ ἄνω, ἡ δὲ τροφὴ ἐκ τῆς γῆς. τὰ δὲ τετράποδα ἐπὶ
τὸ μέσον καὶ τὰ πολύποδα καὶ ἄποδα διὰ τὸ μὴ ὀρθὰ
εἶναι· τὰ δὲ δίποδα πρὸς τὸ ἄνω διὰ τὸ ὀρθὰ εἶναι, μάλιστα
10 δ' ὁ ἄνθρωπος· μάλιστα γὰρ κατὰ φύσιν ἐστὶ δίπους.
εὐλόγως δὲ παὶ αἱ ἀρχαί εἰσιν ἀπὸ τούτων τῶν μορίων·
ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἀρχὴ τίμιον, τὸ δ' ἄνω τοῦ κάτω καὶ τὸ πρόσθεν
τοῦ ὄπισθεν καὶ τὸ δεξιὸν τοῦ ἀριστεροῦ τιμιώτερον.
καλῶς δ' ἔχει καὶ τὸ ἀνάπαλιν λέγειν περὶ αὐτῶν, ὡς
15 διὰ τὸ τὰς ἀρχὰς ἐν τούτοις εἶναι ταῦτα τιμιώτερα τῶν
ἀντικειμένων μορίων ἐστίν.
1Some animals, too, have the front and back parts identically situated, for example, Cephalopods (molluscs) and spiral-shaped Testaceans, and these we have discussed elsewhere in another connexion.
Now there is in place a superior, an intermediate, and an inferior; in respect to place bipeds 5have their superior part corresponding to the part of the universe; quadrupeds, polypods, and footless animals to the intermediate part, and plants to the inferior. The reason is that these have no power of locomotion, and the superior part is determined relatively to the nutriment, and their nutriment is from the earth. Quadrupeds, polypods, and footless animals again 10have their superior part corresponding to the intermediate, because they are not erect. Bipeds have theirs corresponding to the superior part of the universe because they are erect, and of bipeds, man par excellence; for man is the most natural of bipeds. And it is reasonable for the starting points to be in these parts; for the starting-point is honourable, and 15the superior is more honourable than the inferior, the front than the back, and the right than the left. Or we may reverse the argument and say quite well that these parts are more honourable than their opposites just because the starting-points are in them.
Now there is in place a superior, an intermediate, and an inferior; in respect to place bipeds 5have their superior part corresponding to the part of the universe; quadrupeds, polypods, and footless animals to the intermediate part, and plants to the inferior. The reason is that these have no power of locomotion, and the superior part is determined relatively to the nutriment, and their nutriment is from the earth. Quadrupeds, polypods, and footless animals again 10have their superior part corresponding to the intermediate, because they are not erect. Bipeds have theirs corresponding to the superior part of the universe because they are erect, and of bipeds, man par excellence; for man is the most natural of bipeds. And it is reasonable for the starting points to be in these parts; for the starting-point is honourable, and 15the superior is more honourable than the inferior, the front than the back, and the right than the left. Or we may reverse the argument and say quite well that these parts are more honourable than their opposites just because the starting-points are in them.
Chapter 6 (706b17–707a15)
Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἐκ τῶν δεξιῶν ἡ τῆς κινήσεώς ἐστιν ἀρχή,
φανερὸν ἐκ τῶν εἰρημένων. ἐπεὶ δ' ἀνάγκη παντὸς συνεχοῦς,
οὗ τὸ μὲν κινεῖται τὸ δ' ἠρεμεῖ, ὅλου δυναμένου κινεῖσθαι
20 ἑστῶτος θατέρου, ᾗ ἄμφω κινεῖται τὰς ἐναντίας κινήσεις, εἶναι
τὸ κοινόν, καθ' ὃ συνεχῆ ταῦτ' ἐστιν ἀλλήλοις, κἀνταῦθ'
ὑπάρχειν τὴν ἀρχὴν τῆς ἑκατέρου τῶν μερῶν κινήσεως,
ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῆς στάσεως δηλονότι, καθ' ὅσας τῶν λεχθεισῶν
ἀντιθέσεων ἰδία κίνησις ὑπάρχει τῶν ἀντικειμένων
25 μερῶν ἑκατέρῳ, πάντα ταῦτα κοινὴν ἀρχὴν ἔχει κατὰ τὴν τῶν
εἰρημένων μερῶν σύμφυσιν, λέγω δὲ τῶν τε δεξιῶν καὶ
τῶν ἀριστερῶν καὶ τῶν ἄνω καὶ κάτω καὶ τῶν ἔμπροσθεν καὶ
τῶν ὄπισθεν. κατὰ μὲν οὖν τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ τὸ ὄπισθεν
διάληψις οὐκ ἔστι τοιαύτη περὶ τὸ κινοῦν ἑαυτό, διὰ τὸ μηθενὶ
30 φυσικὴν ὑπάρχειν κίνησιν εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν, μηδὲ διορισμὸν
ἔχειν τὸ κινούμενον, καθ' ὃν τὴν ἐφ' ἑκάτερα τούτων
μεταβολὴν ποιεῖται· κατὰ δὲ τὸ δεξιόν γε καὶ ἀριστερὸν
καὶ τὸ ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω ἔστι. διὸ τῶν ζῴων ὅσα μέρεσιν
The above discussion has made it clear that the original of movement is in the parts on the right. Now every 20continuous whole, one part of which is moved while the other remains at rest must, in order to be able to move as a whole while one part stands still, have in the place where both parts have opposed movements some common part which connects the moving parts with one another. Further in this common part the original of the motion (and similarly of the absence of motion) 25of each of the parts must lie.
Clearly then if any of the opposite pairs of parts (right and left, that is, superior and inferior, before and behind) have a movement of their own, each of them has for common original of its movements the juncture of the parts in question.
Now before and behind are not distinctions relatively to that which sets up its own motion, 30because in nature nothing has a movement backwards, nor has a moving animal any division whereby it may make a change of position towards its front or back; but right and left, superior and inferior are so distinguished.
Clearly then if any of the opposite pairs of parts (right and left, that is, superior and inferior, before and behind) have a movement of their own, each of them has for common original of its movements the juncture of the parts in question.
Now before and behind are not distinctions relatively to that which sets up its own motion, 30because in nature nothing has a movement backwards, nor has a moving animal any division whereby it may make a change of position towards its front or back; but right and left, superior and inferior are so distinguished.
707a
1 ὀργανικοῖς χρώμενα προέρχεται, τῇ μὲν τοῦ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ
ὄπισθεν διαφορᾷ οὐκ ἔχει διωρισμένα ταῦτα, ταῖς δὲ λοιπαῖς,
ἀμφοτέραις μέν, προτέρᾳ δὲ τῇ κατὰ τὸ δεξιὸν καὶ
ἀριστερὸν διοριζούσῃ, διὰ τὸ τὴν μὲν ἐν τοῖς δυσὶν εὐθέως
5 ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι ὑπάρχειν, τὴν δ' ἐν τοῖς τέτταρσι πρώτοις.
ἐπεὶ οὖν τό τε ἄνω καὶ τὸ κάτω καὶ τὸ δεξιὸν καὶ ἀριστερὸν
τῇ αὐτῇ ἀρχῇ καὶ κοινῇ συνήρτηται πρὸς αὑτά (λέγω δὲ
ταύτην τὴν τῆς κινήσεως κυρίαν), δεῖ δ' ἐν ἅπαντι τῷ μέλλοντι
κατὰ τρόπον ποιεῖσθαι τὴν ἀφ' ἑκάστου κίνησιν ὡρίσθαι
10 πως καὶ τετάχθαι ταῖς ἀποστάσεσι ταῖς πρὸς τὰς ῥηθείσας
ἀρχάς (τάς τε ἀντιστοίχους καὶ τὰς συστοίχους τῶν ἐν τοῖς
μέρεσι τούτοις) τὸ τῶν λεχθεισῶν κινήσεων ἁπασῶν αἴτιον,
(αὕτη δ' ἐστὶν ἀφ' ἧς ἀρχῆς κοινῆς τῶν ἐν τῷ ζῴω ἥ τε
τοῦ δεξιοῦ καὶ ἀριστεροῦ κίνησίς ἐστιν, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἡ τοῦ ἄνω
15 καὶ κάτω) ταύτην δ' ἔχειν ἑκάστῳ ᾗ παραπλησίως πρὸς
1Accordingly, all animals which progress by the use of distinct members have these members distinguished not by the differences of before and behind, but only of the remaining two pairs; the prior difference dividing these members into right and left (a difference which must appear as soon as you have division 5into two), and the other difference appearing of necessity where there is division into four.
Since then these two pairs, the superior and inferior and the right and left, are linked to one another by the same common original (by which I mean that which controls their movement), and further, everything which is intended to make a movement in each such part properly must have the original 10cause of all the said movements arranged in a certain definite position relatively to the distances from it of the originals of the movements of the individual members (and these centres of the individual parts are in pairs arranged coordinately or diagonally, and the common centre is the original from which the animal's movements of right and left, and similarly of superior and inferior, 15start); each animal must have this original at a point where it is equally or nearly equally related to each of the centres in the four parts described.
Since then these two pairs, the superior and inferior and the right and left, are linked to one another by the same common original (by which I mean that which controls their movement), and further, everything which is intended to make a movement in each such part properly must have the original 10cause of all the said movements arranged in a certain definite position relatively to the distances from it of the originals of the movements of the individual members (and these centres of the individual parts are in pairs arranged coordinately or diagonally, and the common centre is the original from which the animal's movements of right and left, and similarly of superior and inferior, 15start); each animal must have this original at a point where it is equally or nearly equally related to each of the centres in the four parts described.
Chapter 7 (707a16–708a8)
ἑκάστην τῶν ἐν τοῖς ῥηθεῖσι μέρεσιν ἀρχῶν, δῆλον οὖν ὡς ἢ
μόνοις ἢ μάλιστα τούτοις ὑπάρχει τῶν ζῴων ἡ κατὰ τόπον
κίνησις, ἃ δυσὶν ἢ τέτταρσι ποιεῖται σημείοις τὴν κατὰ
τόπον μεταβολήν. ὥστ' ἐπεὶ σχεδὸν τοῖς ἐναίμοις τοῦτο μάλιστα
20 συμβέβηκε, φανερὸν ὅτι πλείοσί τε σημείοις τεττάρων
οὐθὲν οἷόν τε κινεῖσθαι τῶν ἐναίμων ζῴων, καὶ εἴ τι
τέτταρσι σημείοις κινεῖσθαι πέφυκε μόνον, ἀναγκαῖον τοῦτ'
εἶναι ἔναιμον. ὁμολογεῖ δὲ τοῖς λεχθεῖσι καὶ τὰ συμβαίνοντα
περὶ τὰ ζῷα. τῶν μὲν γὰρ ἐναίμων οὐδὲν εἰς πλείω
25 διαιρούμενον δύναται ζῆν οὐθένα χρόνον ὡς εἰπεῖν, τῆς τε κατὰ
τόπον κινήσεως, καθ' ἣν ἐκινεῖτο συνεχὲς ὂν καὶ μὴ διῃρημένον,
οὐ δύναται κοινωνεῖν· τῶν δ' ἀναίμων τε καὶ πολυπόδων
ἔνια διαιρούμενα δύναται ζῆν πολὺν χρόνον ἑκάστῳ
τῶν μερῶν, καὶ κινεῖσθαι τὴν αὐτὴν ἥνπερ καὶ πρὶν διαιρεθῆναι
30 κίνησιν, οἷον αἵ τε καλούμεναι σκολόπενδραι καὶ
ἄλλα τῶν ἐντόμων καὶ προμήκων· πάντων γὰρ τούτων καὶ
It is clear then how locomotion belongs to those animals only which make their changes of place by means of two or four points in their structure, or to such animals par excellence. Moreover, since this property belongs almost peculiarly 20to Sanguineous animals, we see that no Sanguineous animal can progress at more points than four, and that if it is the nature of anything so to progress at four points it must of necessity be Sanguineous.
What we observe in the animal world is in agreement with the above account. For no Sanguineous animal if it be divided into more parts can live for any appreciable length of time, nor 25can it enjoy the power of locomotion which it possessed while it was a continuous and undivided whole. But some bloodless animals and polypods can live a long time, if divided, in each of the severed parts, and can move in the same way as before they were dismembered. Examples are what is termed the centipede and other insects that are long in shape, for even the hinder portion of all these 30goes on progressing in the same direction as before when they are cut in two.
What we observe in the animal world is in agreement with the above account. For no Sanguineous animal if it be divided into more parts can live for any appreciable length of time, nor 25can it enjoy the power of locomotion which it possessed while it was a continuous and undivided whole. But some bloodless animals and polypods can live a long time, if divided, in each of the severed parts, and can move in the same way as before they were dismembered. Examples are what is termed the centipede and other insects that are long in shape, for even the hinder portion of all these 30goes on progressing in the same direction as before when they are cut in two.
707b
1 τὸ ὄπισθεν μέρος ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ ποιεῖται τὴν πορείαν τῷ ἔμπροσθεν.
αἴτιον δὲ τοῦ διαιρούμενα ζῆν ὅτι, καθάπερ ἂν εἴ
τι συνεχὲς ἐκ πολλῶν εἴη ζῴων συγκείμενον, οὕτως ἕκαστον
αὐτῶν συνέστηκε. φανερὸν δὲ τοῦτο ἐκ τῶν πρότερον εἰρημένων,
5 διότι τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον. δυσὶ γὰρ ἢ τέτταρσι κινεῖσθαι
πέφυκε σημείοις τὰ μάλιστα συνεστηκότα κατὰ φύσιν,
ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῶν ἐναίμων ὅσα ἄποδά ἐστι. καὶ γὰρ
ταῦτα κινεῖται τέτταρσι σημείοις, δι' ὧν τὴν κίνησιν ποιεῖται.
δυσὶ γὰρ χρώμενα προέρχεται καμπαῖς· τὸ γὰρ δεξιὸν
10 καὶ ἀριστερὸν τὸ πρόσθιον καὶ ὀπίσθιον ἐν τῷ πλάτει
ἐστὶν ἐν ἑκατέρᾳ τῇ καμπῇ αὐτοῖς, ἐν μὲν τῷ πρὸς τὴν
κεφαλὴν μέρει τὸ πρόσθιον σημεῖον δεξιόν τε καὶ ἀριστερόν,
ἐν δὲ τῷ πρὸς τὴν οὐρὰν τὰ ὀπίσθια σημεῖα. δοκεῖ δὲ δυοῖν
σημείοιν κινεῖσθαι, τῇ τ' ἔμπροσθεν ἁφῇ καὶ τῇ ὕστερον.
15 αἴτιον δ' ὅτι στενὸν κατὰ πλάτος ἐστίν, ἐπεὶ καὶ ἐν τούτοις
τὸ δεξιὸν ἡγεῖται, καὶ ἀνταποδίδωσι κατὰ τὸ ὄπισθεν, ὥςπερ
ἐν τοῖς τετράποσι. τῶν δὲ κάμψεων αἴτιον τὸ μῆκος·
ὥσπερ γὰρ οἱ μακροὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων λορδοὶ βαδίζουσι, καὶ
τοῦ δεξιοῦ ὤμου εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν ἡγουμένου (τὸ γὰρ ἀριστερὸν ἰσχίον
20 εἰς | τοὔπισθεν μᾶλλον ἀποκλίνει, καὶ τὸ μέσον κοῖλον γίνεται
καὶ λορδόν) οὕτω δεῖ νοεῖν καὶ τοὺς ὄφεις κινουμένους ἐπὶ τῇ
γῇ λορδούς. σημεῖον δ' ὅτι ὁμοίως κινοῦνται τοῖς τετράποσιν·
ἐν μέρει γὰρ μεταβάλλουσι τὸ κοῖλον καὶ τὸ κυρτόν. ὅταν
γὰρ τὸ ἀριστερὸν πάλιν τῶν προσθίων ἡγήσηται, ἐξ ἐναντίας
25 πάλιν τὸ κοῖλον γίνεται· τὸ γὰρ δεξιὸν ἐντὸς πάλιν γίνεται.
σημεῖον δεξιὸν πρόσθιον ἐφ' οὗ Α, ἀριστερὸν ἐφ' οὗ Β, ὀπίσθιον
ἀριστερὸν ἐφ' οὗ Γ, δεξιὸν ἐφ' οὗ Δ. οὕτω δὲ κινοῦνται τῶν μὲν
χερσαίων οἱ ὄφεις, τῶν δ' ἐνύδρων αἱ ἐγχέλεις καὶ οἱ γόγγροι
καὶ αἱ μύραιναι, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅσα ἔχει τὴν μορφὴν
30 ὀφιωδεστέραν. πλὴν ἔνια μὲν τῶν ἐνύδρων τῶν τοιούτων
οὐδὲν ἔχει πτερύγιον, οἷον αἱ μύραιναι, ἀλλὰ χρῆται τῇ
1The explanation of their living when thus divided is that each of them is constructed like a continuous body of many separate living beings. It is plain, too, from what was said above why they are like this. Animals constructed most naturally 5are made to move at two or four points, and even limbless Sanguinea are no exception. They too move by dint of four points, whereby they achieve progression. They go forward by means of two flexions. For in each of their flexions there is a right and a left, both before and behind in their flat surface, 10in the part towards the head a right and a left front point, and in the part towards the tail the two hinder points. They look as if they moved at two points only, where they touch before and behind, but that is only because they are narrow in breadth. Even. in them the right is the sovereign part, and 15there is an alternate correspondence behind, exactly as in quadrupeds. The reason of their flexions is their great length, for just as tall men walk with their spines bellied (undulated) forward, and when their right shoulder is leading in a forward direction their left hip rather inclined backwards, so that 20their middle becomes hollow and bellied (undulated), so we ought to conceive snakes as moving in concave curves (undulations) upon the ground. And this is evidence that they move themselves like the quadrupeds, for they make the concave in its turn convex and the convex concave. When in its turn the 25left of the forward parts is leading, the concavity is in its turn reversed, for the right becomes the inner. (Let the right front point be A, the left B, the right hind C, the left D.)
Among land animals this is the character of the movement of snakes, and among water animals of eels, and conger-eels and 30also lampreys, in fact of all that have their form snakelike.
Among land animals this is the character of the movement of snakes, and among water animals of eels, and conger-eels and 30also lampreys, in fact of all that have their form snakelike.
708a
1 θαλάττῃ ὥσπερ οἱ ὄφεις τῇ γῇ καὶ τῇ θαλάττῃ (νέουσι
γὰρ οἱ ὄφεις ὁμοίως καὶ ὅταν κινῶνται ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς)·
τὰ δὲ δύ' ἔχει πτερύγια μόνον, οἷον οἵ τε γόγγροι καὶ
αἱ ἐγχέλυες καὶ γένος τι κεστρέων, οἳ γίνονται ἐν τῇ λίμνῃ
5 τῇ ἐν Σιφαῖς. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ταῖς καμπαῖς ἐλάττοσι κινοῦνται
ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ ἢ ἐν τῇ γῇ τὰ ζῆν εἰωθότα ἐν τῇ γῇ, καθάπερ
τὸ τῶν ἐγχελύων γένος. οἱ δὲ δύο πτερύγια ἔχοντες
τῶν κεστρέων τῇ καμπῇ ἀνισάζουσιν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ τὰ τέτταρα
σημεῖα.
1However, some marine animals of this shape have no fin, lampreys for example, but put the sea to the same use as snakes do both land and water (for snakes swim precisely as they move on the ground). Others have two fins only, for example conger-eels and eels 5and a kind of cestreus which breeds in the lake of Siphae. On this account too those that are accustomed to live on land, for example all the eels, move with fewer flexions in a fluid than on land, while the kind of cestreus which has two fins, by its flexion in a fluid makes up the remaining points.
Chapter 8 (708a9–708b19)
τοῖς δ' ὄφεσιν αἴτιον τῆς ἀποδίας τό τε τὴν φύσιν
10 μηθὲν ποιεῖν μάτην, ἀλλὰ πάντα πρὸς τὸ ἄριστον ἀποβλέπουσαν
ἑκάστῳ <ἐκ> τῶν ἐνδεχομένων, διασώζουσαν ἑκάστου τὴν
ἰδίαν | οὐσίαν καὶ τὸ τί ἦν αὐτῷ εἶναι· ἔτι δὲ καὶ τὸ πρότερον ἡμῖν
εἰρημένον, τὸ τῶν ἐναίμων μηθὲν οἷόν τ' εἶναι πλείοσι κινεῖσθαι
σημείοις ἢ τέτταρσιν. ἐκ τούτων γὰρ φανερὸν ὅτι τῶν
15 ἐναίμων ὅσα κατὰ τὸ μῆκος ἀσύμμετρά ἐστι πρὸς τὴν ἄλλην
τοῦ σώματος φύσιν, καθάπερ οἱ ὄφεις, οὐθὲν αὐτῶν οἷόν
θ' ὑπόπουν εἶναι. πλείους μὲν γὰρ τεττάρων οὐχ οἷόν τε αὐτὰ
πόδας ἔχειν (ἄναιμα γὰρ ἂν ἦν), ἔχοντα δὲ δύο πόδας ἢ
τέτταρας σχεδὸν ἦν ἂν ἀκίνητα πάμπαν· οὕτω βραδεῖαν
20 ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι καὶ ἀνωφελῆ τὴν κίνησιν.
Ἅπαν δὲ τὸ ὑπόπουν ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀρτίους ἔχει τοὺς πόδας·
ὅσα μὲν γὰρ ἅλσει χρώμενα μόνον ποιεῖται τὴν κατὰ
τόπον μεταβολήν, οὐθὲν ποδῶν πρός γε τὴν τοιαύτην δεῖται
κίνησιν· ὅσα δὲ χρῆται μὲν ἅλσει, μή ἐστι δ' αὐτοῖς αὐτάρκης
25 αὕτη ἡ κίνησις ἀλλὰ καὶ πορείας προσδέονται, δῆλον
ὡς τοῖς μὲν βέλτιον τοῖς δ' ὅλως ἀδύνατον πορεύεσθαι.
[διότι πᾶν ζῷον ἀναγκαῖον ἀρτίους ἔχειν τοὺς πόδας.] οὔσης
γὰρ τῆς τοιαύτης μεταβολῆς κατὰ μέρος, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἀθρόῳ
παντὶ τῷ σώματι καθάπερ τῆς ἅλσεως, ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστι
30 τοῖς μὲν μένειν μεταβαλλόντων τῶν ποδῶν τοῖς δὲ κινεῖσθαι,
καὶ τοῖς ἀντικειμένοις τούτων ποιεῖν ἑκάτερον, μεταβάλλον
ἀπὸ τῶν κινουμένων ἐπὶ τὰ μένοντα τὸ βάρος. διόπερ οὔτε τρισὶ
The reason why snakes are 10limbless is first that nature makes nothing without purpose, but always regards what is the best possible for each individual, preserving the peculiar essence of each and its intended character, and secondly the principle we laid down above that no Sanguineous creature can move itself at more than four points. Granting this it 15is evident that Sanguineous animals like snakes, whose length is out of proportion to the rest of their dimensions, cannot possibly have limbs; for they cannot have more than four (or they would be bloodless), and if they had two or four they would be practically stationary; so slow and unprofitable would their movement 20necessarily be.
But every limbed animal has necessarily an even number of such limbs. For those which only jump and so move from place to place do not need limbs for this movement at least, but those which not only jump but also need to walk, finding that movement not sufficient for their purposes, evidently either are better able 25to progress with even limbs or cannot otherwise progress at all every animal which has limbs must have an even us for as this kind of movement is effected by part of the body at a time, and not by the whole at once as in the movement of leaping, some of the limbs must in turn remain at rest, and others be moved, and the 30animal must act in each of these cases with opposite limbs, shifting the weight from the limbs that are being moved to those at rest.
But every limbed animal has necessarily an even number of such limbs. For those which only jump and so move from place to place do not need limbs for this movement at least, but those which not only jump but also need to walk, finding that movement not sufficient for their purposes, evidently either are better able 25to progress with even limbs or cannot otherwise progress at all every animal which has limbs must have an even us for as this kind of movement is effected by part of the body at a time, and not by the whole at once as in the movement of leaping, some of the limbs must in turn remain at rest, and others be moved, and the 30animal must act in each of these cases with opposite limbs, shifting the weight from the limbs that are being moved to those at rest.
708b
1 μὲν οὐθὲν οὔθ' ἑνὶ χρώμενον βαδίζειν οἷόν τε· τὸ μὲν γὰρ οὐθὲν
ὅλως ὑπόστημα ἔχει ἐφ' ᾧ τὸ τοῦ σώματος ἕξει βάρος,
τὸ δὲ κατὰ τὴν ἑτέραν ἀντίθεσιν μόνην, ὥστ' ἀναγκαῖον
αὐτὸ οὕτως ἐπιχειροῦν κινεῖσθαι πίπτειν. ὅσα δὲ πολύποδά
5 ἐστιν, οἷον αἱ σκολόπενδραι, τούτοις δυνατὸν μὲν καὶ ἀπὸ
περιττῶν ποδῶν πορείαν γίνεσθαι, καθάπερ φαίνεται ποιούμενα
καὶ νῦν, ἄν τις αὐτῶν ἕνα πηρώσῃ τῶν ποδῶν, διὰ
τὸ τὴν τῶν ἀντιστοίχων ποδῶν κολόβωσιν ἰᾶσθαι τῷ λοιπῷ
πλήθει τῶν ἐφ' ἑκάτερα ποδῶν· γίνεται γὰρ τούτοις οἷον
10 ἔφελξις τοῦ πεπηρωμένου μορίου τοῖς ἄλλοις [ἀλλ' οὐ βάδισις].
οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ φανερόν γε ὅτι βέλτιον ἂν καὶ ταῦτα ποιοῖτο τὴν
μεταβολὴν ἀρτίους ἔχοντα τοὺς πόδας, καὶ μηθενὸς ἐλλείποντος,
ἀλλ' ἀντιστοίχους ἔχοντα τοὺς πόδας· οὕτω γὰρ <ἂν> αὑτῶν
ἀνισάζειν τε δύναιντο τὸ βάρος καὶ μὴ ταλαντεύειν
15 ἐπὶ θάτερα μᾶλλον, εἰ ἀντίστοιχα ἐρείσματ' ἔχοι καὶ
μὴ κενὴν τὴν ἑτέραν χώραν τῶν ἀντικειμένων. προβαίνει
δ' ἀφ' ἑκατέρου τῶν μερῶν ἐναλλὰξ πορευόμενον·
οὕτω γὰρ εἰς ταὐτὸ τῷ ἐξ ἀρχῆς σχήματι γίνεται ἡ
κατάστασις.
1And so nothing can walk on three limbs or on one; in the latter case it has no support at all on which to rest the body's weight, in the former only in respect of one pair of opposites, and so it must necessarily fall in endeavouring so to move.
Polypods however, 5like the Centipede, can indeed make progress on an odd number of limbs, as may be seen by the experiment of wounding one of their limbs; for then the mutilation of one row of limbs is corrected by the number of limbs which remain on either side. Such mutilated creatures, however, drag the wounded limb after them with the remainder, 10and do not properly speaking walk. Moreover, it is plain that they, too, would make the change of place better if they had an even number, in fact if none were missing and they had the limbs which correspond to one another. In this way they could equalize their own weight, and not oscillate to one side, if they had corresponding 15supports instead of one section of the opposite sides being unoccupied by a limb. A walking creature advances from each of its members alternately, for in this way it recovers the same figure that it had at first.
Polypods however, 5like the Centipede, can indeed make progress on an odd number of limbs, as may be seen by the experiment of wounding one of their limbs; for then the mutilation of one row of limbs is corrected by the number of limbs which remain on either side. Such mutilated creatures, however, drag the wounded limb after them with the remainder, 10and do not properly speaking walk. Moreover, it is plain that they, too, would make the change of place better if they had an even number, in fact if none were missing and they had the limbs which correspond to one another. In this way they could equalize their own weight, and not oscillate to one side, if they had corresponding 15supports instead of one section of the opposite sides being unoccupied by a limb. A walking creature advances from each of its members alternately, for in this way it recovers the same figure that it had at first.
Chapter 9 (708b20–709b19)
20 Ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἀρτίους ἔχει τοὺς πόδας πάντα, καὶ διὰ
τίν' αἰτίαν εἴρηται· ὅτι δ' εἰ μηθὲν ἦν ἠρεμοῦν, οὐκ ἂν ἦν
κάμψις οὐδ' εὔθυνσις, ἐκ τῶνδε δῆλον. ἔστι γὰρ κάμψις
μὲν ἡ ἐξ εὐθέος ἢ εἰς περιφερὲς ἢ εἰς γωνίαν μεταβολή,
εὔθυνσις δ' ἡ ἐκ θατέρου τούτων εἰς εὐθύ. ἐν ἁπάσαις δὲ ταῖς
25 εἰρημέναις μεταβολαῖς ἀνάγκη πρὸς ἓν σημεῖον τὴν κάμψιν
ἢ τὴν εὔθυνσιν γίνεσθαι. ἀλλὰ μὴν κάμψεώς γε μὴ οὔσης
οὔτ' ἂν πορεία οὔτε νεῦσις οὔτε πτῆσις ἦν. τὰ μὲν γὰρ ὑπόποδα
ἐπειδὴ ἐν ἑκατέρῳ τῶν ἀντικειμένων σκελῶν ἐν μέρει
ἵσταται καὶ τὸ βάρος ἴσχει, ἀναγκαῖον θατέρου προβαίνοντος
30 θατέρου ποιεῖσθαι κάμψιν. ἴσα τε γὰρ πέφυκεν ἔχειν τῷ
μήκει τὰ ἀντίστοιχα κῶλα, καὶ ὀρθὸν δεῖ εἶναι τὸ ὑφεστὸς
τῷ βάρει, οἷον κάθετον πρὸς τὴν γῆν. ὅταν δὲ προβαίνῃ,
The fact that all animals have an even number of feet, and the reasons for the fact have been set forth. What 20follows will explain that if there were no point at rest flexion and straightening would be impossible. Flexion is a change from a right line to an arc or an angle, straightening a change from either of these to a right line. Now in all such changes the flexion or the straightening must be relative to one point. Moreover, without 25flexion there could not be walking or swimming or flying. For since limbed creatures stand and take their weight alternately on one or other of the opposite legs, if one be thrust forward the other of necessity must be bent. For the opposite limbs are naturally of equal length, and the one which is under the weight must be a kind 30of perpendicular at right angles to the ground.
When then one leg is advanced it becomes the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle.
When then one leg is advanced it becomes the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle.
709a
1 γίνεται ἡ ὑποτείνουσα καὶ δυναμένη τὸ μένον μέγεθος καὶ
τὴν μεταξύ. ἐπεὶ δ' ἴσα τὰ κῶλα, ἀνάγκη κάμψαι τὸ
μένον, ἢ ἐν τῷ γόνατι ἢ ἐν τῇ κάμψει, οἷον εἴ τι ἀγόνατον
εἴη τῶν βαδιζόντων. σημεῖον δ' ὅτι οὕτως ἔχει· εἰ γάρ
5 τις ἐν γῇ **** βαδίζοι παρὰ τοῖχον, ἡ γραφομένη ἔσται οὐκ
εὐθεῖα ἀλλὰ σκολιά, διὰ τὸ ἐλάττω μὲν κάμπτοντος γίνεσθαι
τὴν γραφομένην, μείζω δ' ἱσταμένου καὶ ἐξαίροντος.
ἐνδέχεται μέντοι κινεῖσθαι καὶ μὴ ἔχοντος καμπὴν τοῦ σκέλους,
ὥσπερ τὰ παιδία ἕρπουσι. καὶ περὶ τῶν ἐλεφάντων ὁ
10 παλαιὸς ἦν λόγος τοιοῦτος, οὐκ ἀληθὴς ὤν. κινεῖται δὲ καὶ
τὰ τοιαῦτα κάμψεως γινομένης ἐν ταῖς ὠμοπλάταις ἢ τοῖς
ἰσχίοις. ἀλλ' ὀρθὸν οὐδὲν δύναιτ' ἂν πορευθῆναι συνεχῶς καὶ
ἀσφαλῶς, κινηθείη δ' ἂν οἷον ἐν ταῖς παλαίστραις οἱ διὰ
τῆς κόνεως προϊόντες ἐπὶ τῶν γονάτων· πολὺ γὰρ τὸ ἄνω
15 μέρος, ὥστε δεῖ μακρὸν εἶναι τὸ κῶλον· εἰ δὲ τοῦτο, κάμψιν
ἀναγκαῖον εἶναι. ἐπεὶ γὰρ ἕστηκε πρὸς ὀρθήν,
ἢ καταπεσεῖται ἐλάττονος τῆς ὀρθῆς γινομένης, ἢ οὐ προβήσεται.
εἰ γὰρ ὀρθοῦ ὄντος θατέρου σκέλους θάτερον ἔσται προβεβηκός,
μεῖζον ἔσται, ἴσον ὄν· δυνήσεται γὰρ τοῦτο τό τ' ἠρεμοῦν καὶ
20 τὴν ὑποτείνουσαν. ἀνάγκη ἄρα κάμπτεσθαι τό τε προϊόν, καὶ
κάμψαν ἅμα ἐκτείνειν θάτερον, ἐκκλίνειν τε καὶ διαβεβηκέναι
καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς καθέτου μένειν· ἰσοσκελὲς γὰρ γίνεται
τρίγωνον τὰ κῶλα, καὶ ἡ κεφαλὴ γίνεται κατώτερον, ὅταν
κάθετος ᾖ ἐφ' ἧς βέβηκε. τὰ δ' ἄποδα τὰ μὲν κυμαίνοντα
25 προέρχεται (τοῦτο δὲ διττῶς συμβαίνει· τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἐπὶ
τῆς γῆς, καθάπερ οἱ ὄφεις, τὰς καμπὰς ποιεῖται, τὰ δ'
εἰς τὸ ἄνω, ὥσπερ αἱ κάμπαι), ἡ δὲ κύμανσις καμπή ἐστι·
τὰ δ' ἰλυσπάσει χρώμενα, καθάπερ τὰ καλούμενα γῆς ἔντερα
καὶ βδέλλαι. ταῦτα γὰρ τῷ μὲν ἡγουμένῳ προέρχεται,
30 τὸ δὲ λοιπὸν σῶμα πᾶν πρὸς τοῦτο συνάγουσι, καὶ τοῦτον
τὸν τρόπον εἰς τόπον ἐκ τόπου μεταβάλλουσι. φανερὸν
δ' ὅτι εἰ μὴ αἱ δύο τῆς μιᾶς μείζους ἦσαν, οὐκ ἂν ἐδύναντο
1Its square then is equal to the square on the other side together with the square on the base. As the legs then are equal, the one at rest must bend either at the knee or, if there were any kneeless animal which walked, at some other articulation. The following experiment exhibits the 5fact. If a man were to walk parallel to a wall in sunshine, the line described (by the shadow of his head> would be not straight but zigzag, becoming lower as he bends, and higher when he stands and lifts himself up.
It is, indeed, possible to move oneself even if the leg be not bent, in the way in which children crawl. This was the old though erroneous account 10of the movement of elephants. But these kinds of movements involve a flexion in the shoulders or in the hips. Nothing at any rate could walk upright continuously and securely without flexions at the knee, but would have to move like men in the wrestling schools who crawl forward through the sand on their knees. For the upper part of the upright creature is 15long so that its leg has to be correspondingly long; in consequence there must be flexion. For since a stationary position is perpendicular, if that which moves cannot bend it will either fall forward as the right angle becomes acute or will not be able to progress. For if one leg is at right angles to the ground and the other is advanced, the latter will be at 20once equal and greater. For it will be equal to the stationary leg and also equivalent to the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. That which goes forward therefore must bend, and while bending one, extend the other leg simultaneously, so as to incline forward and make a stride and still remain above the perpendicular; for the legs form an isosceles triangle, 25and the head sinks lower when it is perpendicularly above the base on which it stands.
Of limbless animals, some progress by undulations (and this happens in two ways, either they undulate on the ground, like snakes, or up and down, like caterpillars), and undulation is a flexion; others by a telescopic action, like what are called earthworms and leeches. 30These go forward, first one part leading and then drawing the whole of the rest of the body up to this, and so they change from place to place.
It is, indeed, possible to move oneself even if the leg be not bent, in the way in which children crawl. This was the old though erroneous account 10of the movement of elephants. But these kinds of movements involve a flexion in the shoulders or in the hips. Nothing at any rate could walk upright continuously and securely without flexions at the knee, but would have to move like men in the wrestling schools who crawl forward through the sand on their knees. For the upper part of the upright creature is 15long so that its leg has to be correspondingly long; in consequence there must be flexion. For since a stationary position is perpendicular, if that which moves cannot bend it will either fall forward as the right angle becomes acute or will not be able to progress. For if one leg is at right angles to the ground and the other is advanced, the latter will be at 20once equal and greater. For it will be equal to the stationary leg and also equivalent to the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. That which goes forward therefore must bend, and while bending one, extend the other leg simultaneously, so as to incline forward and make a stride and still remain above the perpendicular; for the legs form an isosceles triangle, 25and the head sinks lower when it is perpendicularly above the base on which it stands.
Of limbless animals, some progress by undulations (and this happens in two ways, either they undulate on the ground, like snakes, or up and down, like caterpillars), and undulation is a flexion; others by a telescopic action, like what are called earthworms and leeches. 30These go forward, first one part leading and then drawing the whole of the rest of the body up to this, and so they change from place to place.
709b
1 κινεῖσθαι τὰ κυμαίνοντα τῶν ζῴων. ἐκταθείσης γὰρ τῆς καμπῆς,
εἰ ἴσην κατεῖχεν, οὐθὲν ἂν προῄεσαν· νῦν δ' ὑπερβάλλει
ἐκταθεῖσα, καὶ ἠρεμήσαντος τούτου ἐπάγει τὸ λοιπόν. ἐν ἁπάσαις
δὲ ταῖς λεχθείσαις μεταβολαῖς τὸ κινούμενον ὁτὲ μὲν
5 ἐκτεινόμενον εἰς εὐθὺ προέρχεται, ὁτὲ δὲ συγκαμπτόμενον,
τοῖς μὲν ἡγουμένοις μέρεσιν εὐθὺ γινόμενον, τοῖς δ' ἑπομένοις
συγκαμπτόν. ποιεῖται δὲ καὶ τὰ ἁλλόμενα πάντα τὴν κάμψιν
ἐν τῷ ὑποκειμένῳ μέρει τοῦ σώματος, καὶ τοῦτον τὸν τρόπον
ἔχοντα ἅλλεται. καὶ τὰ πετόμενα δὲ καὶ τὰ νέοντα, τὰ
10 μὲν τὰς πτέρυγας εὐθύνοντα καὶ κάμπτοντα πέταται, τὰ
δὲ τοῖς πτερυγίοις, καὶ τούτων τὰ μὲν τέτταρσι τὰ δὲ δυσίν,
ὅσα προμηκέστερα τὴν μορφήν, ὥσπερ τὸ τῶν ἐγχελύων
γένος· τὴν δὲ λοιπὴν κίνησιν ἀντὶ τῶν δύο πτερυγίων τῷ λοιπῷ
τοῦ σώματος καμπτόμενα νεῖ, καθάπερ εἴρηται πρότερον.
15 οἱ δὲ πλατεῖς τῶν ἰχθύων τῇ μὲν τῷ πλάτει χρῶνται
τοῦ σώματος ἀντὶ πτερυγίων, τῇ δὲ πτερυγίοις δυσί. τὰ
δὲ πάμπαν πλατέα, καθάπερ ὁ βάτος, αὐτοῖς τοῖς πτερυγίοις
καὶ ταῖς ἐσχάταις τοῦ σώματος περιφερείαις εὐθύνοντα
καὶ κάμπτοντα ποιεῖται τὴν νεῦσιν.
1It is plain too that if the two curves were not greater than the one line which subtends them undulating animals could not move themselves; when the flexure is extended they would not have moved forward at all if the flexure or arc were equal to the chord subtended; as it is, it reaches further 5when it is straightened out, and then this part stays still and it draws up what is left behind.
In all the changes described that which moves now extends itself in a straight line to progress, and now is hooped; it straightens itself in its leading part, and is hooped in what follows behind. Even jumping animals all make a flexion in the part of the body which 10is underneath, and after this fashion make their leaps. So too flying and swimming things progress, the one straightening and bending their wings to fly, the other their fins to swim. Of the latter some have four fins, others which are rather long, for example eels, have only two. These swim by substituting a flexion of the rest of their body for the (missing) 15pair of fins to complete the movement, as we have said before. Flat fish use two fins, and the flat of their body as a substitute for the absent pair of fins. Quite flat fish, like the Ray, produce their swimming movement with the actual fins and with the two extremes or semicircles of their body, bending and straightening themselves alternately.
In all the changes described that which moves now extends itself in a straight line to progress, and now is hooped; it straightens itself in its leading part, and is hooped in what follows behind. Even jumping animals all make a flexion in the part of the body which 10is underneath, and after this fashion make their leaps. So too flying and swimming things progress, the one straightening and bending their wings to fly, the other their fins to swim. Of the latter some have four fins, others which are rather long, for example eels, have only two. These swim by substituting a flexion of the rest of their body for the (missing) 15pair of fins to complete the movement, as we have said before. Flat fish use two fins, and the flat of their body as a substitute for the absent pair of fins. Quite flat fish, like the Ray, produce their swimming movement with the actual fins and with the two extremes or semicircles of their body, bending and straightening themselves alternately.
Chapter 10 (709b20–710b4)
20 Ἀπορήσειε δ' ἄν τις ἴσως πῶς κινοῦνται τέτταρσι σημείοις
οἱ ὄρνιθες, ἢ πετόμενοι ἢ πορευόμενοι, ὡς εἰρημένου
ὅτι πάντα τὰ ἔναιμα κινεῖται τέτταρσιν. οὐκ εἴρηται δέ,
ἀλλ' ὅτι οὐ πλείοσιν. οὐ μὴν ἀλλ' οὔτ' ἂν πέτεσθαι δύναιντο
ἀφαιρεθέντων τῶν κώλων οὔτε πορεύεσθαι τῶν πτερύγων
25 ἀφαιρεθεισῶν, ἐπεὶ οὐδ' ἄνθρωπος βαδίζειν μὴ κινῶν τι τοὺς ὤμους.
ἀλλὰ πάντα γε, καθάπερ εἴρηται, κάμψει καὶ ἐκτάσει
ποιεῖται τὴν μεταβολήν· ἅπαντα γὰρ εἰς τὸ ὑποκείμενον
μέχρι τινὸς οἷον εἰς ὑπεῖκον προέρχεται, ὥστ' ἀναγκαῖον,
εἰ μὴ καὶ κατ' ἄλλο μόριον γίνεται ἡ κάμψις,
30 ἀλλ' ὅθεν γε ἡ ἀρχὴ τοῖς μὲν ὁλοπτέροις τοῦ πτεροῦ, τοῖς δ'
ὄρνισι τῆς πτέρυγος, τοῖς δ' ἄλλοις τοῦ ἀνάλογον μορίου, καθάπερ
τοῖς ἰχθύσι. τοῖς δ', ὥσπερ οἱ ὄφεις, ἐν ταῖς καμπαῖς
A difficulty might 20perhaps be raised about birds. How, it may be said, can they, either when they fly or when they walk, be said to move at four points? Now we did not say that all Sanguinea move at four points, but merely at not more than four. Moreover, they cannot as a fact fly if their legs be removed, nor walk without their wings. Even a man does not walk without moving his 25shoulders. Everything indeed, as we have said, makes a change of place by flexion and straightening, for all things progress by pressing upon what being beneath them up to a point gives way as it were gradually; accordingly, even if there be no flexion in another member, there must be at least in the point whence motion begins, is in feathered (flying) insects at 30the base of the 'scale-wing', in birds at the base of the wing, in others at the base of the corresponding member, the fins, for instance, in fish.
710a
1 τοῦ σώματός ἐστιν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κάμψεως. τὸ δ' ὀρροπύγιόν
ἐστι τοῖς πτηνοῖς πρὸς τὸ κατευθύνειν τὴν πτῆσιν, καθάπερ
τὰ πηδάλια τοῖς πλοίοις. ἀναγκαῖον δὲ καὶ ταῦτα ἐν
τῇ προσφύσει κάμπτειν. διόπερ τά τε ὁλόπτερα καὶ τῶν
5 σχιζοπτέρων οἷς τὸ ὀρροπύγιον ἀφυῶς ἔχει πρὸς τὴν εἰρημένην
χρῆσιν, οἷον τοῖς τε ταῷς καὶ τοῖς ἀλεκτρυόσι καὶ ὅλως
τοῖς μὴ πτητικοῖς, οὐκ εὐθυποροῦσι· τῶν μὲν γὰρ ὁλοπτέρων
ἁπλῶς οὐθὲν ἔχει ὀρροπύγιον, ὥστε καθάπερ ἀπήδαλον πλοῖον
φέρεται, καὶ ὅπου ἂν τύχῃ ἕκαστον αὐτῶν προσπίπτει, ὁμοίως
10 <δὲ> τά τε κολεόπτερα, οἷον κάνθαροι καὶ μηλολόνθαι,
καὶ τὰ ἀνέλυτρα, οἷον μέλιτται καὶ σφῆκες. καὶ τοῖς μὴ
πτητικοῖς ἀχρεῖον τὸ ὀρροπύγιόν ἐστιν, οἷον τοῖς τε πορφυρίωσι
καὶ ἐρωδιοῖς καὶ πᾶσι τοῖς πλωτοῖς· ἀλλ' ἀντὶ τοῦ
ὀρροπυγίου πέτανται τοὺς πόδας ἀποτείνοντα, καὶ χρῶνται ἀντ'
15 ὀρροπυγίου τοῖς σκέλεσι πρὸς τὸ κατευθύνειν τὴν πτῆσιν. βραδεῖα
δ' ἡ πτῆσις τῶν ὁλοπτέρων ἐστὶ καὶ ἀσθενὴς διὰ τὸ
μὴ κατὰ λόγον ἔχειν τὴν τῶν πτερῶν φύσιν πρὸς τὸ τοῦ
σώματος βάρος, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν πολύ, τὰ δὲ μικρὰ καὶ ἀσθενῆ.
ὥσπερ ἂν οὖν εἰ ὁλκαδικὸν πλοῖον ἐπιχειροίη κώπαις
20 ποιεῖσθαι τὸν πλοῦν, οὕτω ταῦτα τῇ πτήσει χρῆται. καὶ ἡ
ἀσθένεια δὲ αὐτῶν τε τῶν πτερῶν καὶ ἡ τῆς ἐκφύσεως
συμβάλλεταί τι πρὸς τὸ λεχθέν. τῶν δ' ὀρνίθων τῷ μὲν
ταῷ τὸ ὀρροπύγιον ὁτὲ μὲν διὰ τὸ μέγεθος ἄχρηστον, ὁτὲ δὲ
διὰ τὸ ἀποβάλλειν οὐθὲν ὠφελεῖ. ὑπεναντίως δ' ἔχουσιν οἱ
25 ὄρνιθες τοῖς ὁλοπτέροις τὴν τῶν πτερῶν φύσιν, μάλιστα δ' οἱ
τάχιστα αὐτῶν πετόμενοι. τοιοῦτοι δ' οἱ γαμψώνυχες· τούτοις
γὰρ ἡ ταχυτὴς τῆς πτήσεως χρήσιμος πρὸς τὸν βίον.
ἀκόλουθα δ' αὐτῶν ἔοικεν εἶναι καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ μόρια τοῦ σώματος
πρὸς τὴν ὠκεῖαν κίνησιν, κεφαλὴ μὲν ἁπάντων μικρὰ
30 καὶ αὐχὴν οὐ παχύς, στῆθος δ' ἰσχυρὸν καὶ ὀξύ, ὀξὺ
μὲν πρὸς τὸ εὔτονον εἶναι, καθάπερ ἂν εἰ πλοίου πρώρα λεμβώδους,
ἰσχυρὸν δὲ τῇ φύσει τῆς σαρκός, ἵν' ἀπωθεῖν τε
1In others, for example snakes, the flexion begins in the joints of the body.
In winged creatures the tail serves, like a ship's rudder, to keep the flying thing in its course. The tail then must like other limbs be able to bend at the point of attachment. And so flying 5insects, and birds (Schizoptera) whose tails are ill-adapted for the use in question, for example peacocks, and domestic cocks, and generally birds that hardly fly, cannot steer a straight course. Flying insects have absolutely no tail, and so drift along like a rudderless vessel, and beat against anything they happen upon; and 10this applies equally to sharded insects, like the scarab-beetle and the chafer, and to unsharded, like bees and wasps. Further, birds that are not made for flight have a tail that is of no use; for instance the purple coot and the heron and all water-fowl. These fly stretching out their feet as a substitute for a tail, and use their 15legs instead of a tail to direct their flight. The flight of insects is slow and frail because the character of their feathery wings is not proportionate to the bulk of their body; this is heavy, their wings small and frail, and so the flight they use is like a cargo boat attempting to make its voyage with oars; now the frailty both 20of the actual wings and of the outgrowths upon them contributes in a measure to the flight described. Among birds, the peacock's tail is at one time useless because of its size, at another because it is shed. But birds are in general at the opposite pole to flying insects as regards their feathers, but especially the swiftest flyers 25among them. (These are the birds with curved talons, for swiftness of wing is useful to their mode of life.) The rest of their bodily structure is in harmony with their peculiar movement, the small head, the slight neck, the strong and acute breastbone (acute like the prow of a clipper-built vessel, so as to be well-girt, and strong 30by dint of its mass of flesh), in order to be able to push away the air that beats against it, and that easily and without exhaustion.
In winged creatures the tail serves, like a ship's rudder, to keep the flying thing in its course. The tail then must like other limbs be able to bend at the point of attachment. And so flying 5insects, and birds (Schizoptera) whose tails are ill-adapted for the use in question, for example peacocks, and domestic cocks, and generally birds that hardly fly, cannot steer a straight course. Flying insects have absolutely no tail, and so drift along like a rudderless vessel, and beat against anything they happen upon; and 10this applies equally to sharded insects, like the scarab-beetle and the chafer, and to unsharded, like bees and wasps. Further, birds that are not made for flight have a tail that is of no use; for instance the purple coot and the heron and all water-fowl. These fly stretching out their feet as a substitute for a tail, and use their 15legs instead of a tail to direct their flight. The flight of insects is slow and frail because the character of their feathery wings is not proportionate to the bulk of their body; this is heavy, their wings small and frail, and so the flight they use is like a cargo boat attempting to make its voyage with oars; now the frailty both 20of the actual wings and of the outgrowths upon them contributes in a measure to the flight described. Among birds, the peacock's tail is at one time useless because of its size, at another because it is shed. But birds are in general at the opposite pole to flying insects as regards their feathers, but especially the swiftest flyers 25among them. (These are the birds with curved talons, for swiftness of wing is useful to their mode of life.) The rest of their bodily structure is in harmony with their peculiar movement, the small head, the slight neck, the strong and acute breastbone (acute like the prow of a clipper-built vessel, so as to be well-girt, and strong 30by dint of its mass of flesh), in order to be able to push away the air that beats against it, and that easily and without exhaustion.
710b
1 δύνηται τὸν προσπίπτοντα ἀέρα· καὶ τοῦτο δρᾷ ῥᾳδίως καὶ μὴ
μετὰ πόνου· τὰ δ' ὄπισθεν κοῦφα καὶ συνήκοντα πάλιν εἰς
στενόν, ἵν' ἐπακολουθῇ τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν, μὴ σύροντα τὸν ἀέρα
διὰ τὸ πλάτος.
1The hind-quarters, too, are light and taper again, in order to conform to the movement of the front and not by their breadth to suck the air.
Chapter 11 (710b5–711a7)
5 Καὶ περὶ μὲν τούτων διωρίσθω τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον, τὸ δὲ
μέλλον ζῷον ὀρθὸν βαδιεῖσθαι διότι δίπουν τε ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστιν
εἶναι, καὶ τὰ μὲν ἄνω μέρη τοῦ σώματος κουφότερα ἔχειν
τὰ δ' ὑφεστῶτα τούτοις βαρύτερα, δῆλον· μόνως γὰρ ἂν οὕτως
ἔχον οἷόν τ' εἴη φέρειν ἑαυτὸ ῥᾳδίως. διόπερ ἄνθρωπος
10 μόνον ὀρθὸν τῶν ζῴων ὢν τὰ σκέλη κατὰ λόγον ἔχει πρὸς
τὰ ἄνω τοῦ σώματος μέγιστα τῶν ὑποπόδων καὶ ἰσχυρότατα.
δῆλον δὲ ποιεῖ τοῦτο καὶ τὸ συμβαῖνον τοῖς παιδίοις· οὐ γὰρ
δύναται βαδίζειν ὀρθὰ διὰ τὸ πάντα νανώδη εἶναι καὶ | μείζω
καὶ ἰσχυρότερα ἔχειν ἢ κατὰ λόγον τὰ ἄνω μέρη τοῦ σώματος τῶν
15 κάτωθεν. προϊούσης δὲ τῆς ἡλικίας αὔξησιν λαμβάνει τὰ
κάτω μᾶλλον, μέχρι οὗπερ ἂν λάβωσι τὸ προσῆκον μέγεθος,
καὶ ποιοῦνται τότε τοῖς σώμασι τὴν βάδισιν τὴν ὀρθήν. οἱ
δ' ὄρνιθες κοῦφοι ὄντες δίποδές εἰσι διὰ τὸ ὄπισθεν αὐτοῖς τὸ
βάρος εἶναι, καθάπερ ἐργάζονται τοὺς ἵππους τοὺς χαλκοῦς
20 τοὺς τὰ πρόσθια ᾐρκότας τῶν σκελῶν. αἴτιον δὲ μάλιστα τοῦ
δίποδας ὄντας δύνασθαι ἑστάναι τὸ ἔχειν τὸ ἰσχίον ὅμοιον
μηρῷ καὶ τηλικοῦτον ὥστε δοκεῖν δύο μηροὺς ἔχειν, τόν τ' ἐν
τῷ σκέλει πρὸ τῆς καμπῆς καὶ τὸν πρὸς τοῦτο τὸ μέρος
ἀπὸ τῆς ἕδρας· ἔστι δ' οὐ μηρὸς ἀλλ' ἰσχίον. εἰ γὰρ μὴ τηλικοῦτον
25 ἦν, οὐκ ἂν ἦν ὄρνις δίπους. ὥσπερ γὰρ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις
καὶ τοῖς τετράποσι ζῴοις, εὐθὺς ἂν ἦν ἀπὸ βραχέος
ὄντος τοῦ ἰσχίου ὁ μηρὸς καὶ τὸ ἄλλο σκέλος· λίαν οὖν ἂν
ἦν τὸ σῶμα πᾶν προπετὲς αὐτῶν. νῦν δὲ μακρὸν ὂν μέχρι
ὑπὸ μέσην παρατείνει τὴν γαστέρα, ὥστ' ἐντεῦθεν τὰ σκέλη
30 ὑπερηρεισμένα φέρει τὸ σῶμα πᾶν. φανερὸν δ' ἐκ τούτων
καὶ ὅτι ὀρθὸν οὐκ ἐνδέχεται τὸν ὄρνιθα εἶναι ὥσπερ τὸν ἄνθρωπον.
ἡ γὰρ τῶν πτερῶν φύσις ὡς ἔχουσι τὸ σῶμα νῦν
So much then for these questions. But why an animal that is to stand erect must necessarily be not 5only a biped, but must also have the superior parts of the body lighter, and those that lie under these heavier, is plain. Only if situated like this could it possibly carry itself easily. And so man, the only erect animal, has legs longer and stouter relatively to the upper parts of his body than any 10other animal with legs. What we observe in children also is evidence of this. Children cannot walk erect because they are always dwarf-like, the upper parts of their bodies being longer and stouter than the lower. With advancing years the lower increase disproportionately, until the children get their 15appropriate size, and then and not till then they succeed in walking erect. Birds are hunchbacked yet stand on two legs because their weight is set back, after the principle of horses fashioned in bronze with their forelegs prancing. But their being bipeds and able to stand is above all due to their 20having the hip-bone shaped like a thigh, and so large that it looks as if they had two thighs, one in the leg before the knee-joint, the other joining his part to the fundament. Really this is not a thigh but a hip, and if it were not so large the bird could not be a biped. As in a man or a quadruped, 25the thigh and the rest of the leg would be attached immediately to quite a small hip; consequently the whole body would be tilted forward. As it is, however, the hip is long and extends right along to the middle of the belly, so that the legs are attached at that point and carry as supports the 30whole frame. It is also evident from these considerations that a bird cannot possibly be erect in the sense in which man is.
711a
1 οὕτως αὐτοῖς χρήσιμός ἐστιν, ὀρθοῖς δ' οὖσιν ἄχρηστος ἂν ἦν,
ὥσπερ γράφουσι τοὺς ἔρωτας ἔχοντας πτέρυγας. ἅμα γὰρ
τοῖς εἰρημένοις δῆλον ὅτι οὐδ' ἄνθρωπον, οὐδ' εἰ ἄλλο τι τοιοῦτόν
ἐστι τὴν μορφήν, δυνατὸν εἶναι πτερωτόν, οὐ μόνον ὅτι πλείοσι
5 σημείοις κινήσεται ἢ τέτταρσιν ἔναιμον ὄν, ἀλλ' ὅτι ἄχρηστος
αὐτοῖς ἡ τῶν πτερύγων ἕξις κατὰ φύσιν κινουμένοις·
ἡ δὲ φύσις οὐδὲν ποιεῖ παρὰ φύσιν.
1For as it holds its body now the wings are naturally useful to it, but if it were erect they would be as useless as the wings of Cupids we see in pictures. It must have been clear as soon as we spoke that the form of no human nor any similar being permits of wings; 5not only because it would, though Sanguineous, be moved at more than four points, but also because to have wings would be useless to it when moving naturally. And Nature makes nothing contrary to her own nature.
Chapter 12 (711a8–711b32)
Ὅτι μὲν οὖν εἰ μὴ κάμψις ἦν ἐν τοῖς σκέλεσιν ἢ ἐν ταῖς
ὠμοπλάταις καὶ ἰσχίοις, οὐθὲν οἷόν τ' ἦν ἂν τῶν ἐναίμων
10 καὶ ὑποπόδων προβαίνειν, εἴρηται πρότερον, καὶ ὅτι κάμψις
οὐκ ἂν ἦν μηδενὸς ἠρεμοῦντος, ὅτι τε ἐναντίως οἵ τε ἄνθρωποι
δίποδες ὄντες καὶ οἱ ὄρνιθες τὴν τῶν σκελῶν ποιοῦνται
κάμψιν, ἔτι δὲ τὰ τετράποδα ὑπεναντίως καὶ αὑτοῖς
καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις. οἱ μὲν γὰρ ἄνθρωποι τοὺς μὲν βραχίονας
15 κάμπτουσιν ἐπὶ τὰ κοῖλα, τὰ δὲ σκέλη ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν,
τὰ δὲ τετράποδα τὰ μὲν πρόσθια σκέλη ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν, τὰ
δ' ὀπίσθια ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ οἱ ὄρνιθες. αἴτιον
δ' ὅτι ἡ φύσις οὐδὲν δημιουργεῖ μάτην, ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον,
ἀλλὰ πάντα πρὸς τὸ βέλτιστον ἐκ τῶν ἐνδεχομένων.
20 ὥστ' ἐπεὶ πᾶσιν ὅσοις ὑπάρχει κατὰ φύσιν ἡ κατὰ τόπον
μεταβολὴ τοῖν σκελοῖν, ἑστῶτος μὲν ἑκάστου τὸ βάρος ἐν τούτῳ
ἐστί, κινουμένοις δ' εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν δεῖ τὸν πόδα τὸν ἡγούμενον
τῇ θέσει κοῦφον εἶναι, συνεχοῦς δὲ τῆς πορείας γινομένης
αὖθις ἐν τούτῳ τὸ βάρος ἀπολαμβάνειν, δῆλον ὡς ἀναγκαῖον
25 ἐκ τοῦ κεκάμφθαι τὸ σκέλος αὖθις εὐθὺ γίνεσθαι
μένοντος τοῦ τε κατὰ τὸν προωσθέντα πόδα σημείου καὶ τῆς
κνήμης. τοῦτο δὲ συμβαίνειν ἅμα καὶ προϊέναι τὸ ζῷον εἰς
τὸ ἔμπροσθεν μὲν ἔχοντος τὴν καμπὴν τοῦ ἡγουμένου σκέλους
δυνατόν, εἰς τοὔπισθεν δ' ἀδύνατον. οὕτω μὲν γὰρ προενεχθέντος
30 τοῦ σώματος ἡ ἔκτασις τοῦ σκέλους ἔσται, ἐκείνως δ' ἀνενεχθέντος.
ἔτι δ' εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν μὲν τῆς καμπῆς οὔσης διὰ
δύο κινήσεων ἐγίγνετ' ἂν ἡ τοῦ ποδὸς θέσις ὑπεναντίων τε αὑταῖς,
We have stated above that without flexion in the legs or shoulders and hips no Sanguineous animal with feet could 10progress, and that flexion is impossible except some point be at rest, and that men and birds, both bipeds, bend their legs in opposite directions, and further that quadrupeds bend their in opposite directions, and each pair in the opposite way to a man's limbs. For men bend their arms backwards, their legs forwards; quadrupeds 15their forelegs forwards, their back legs backwards, and in like manner also birds bend theirs. The reason is that Nature's workmanship is never purposeless, as we said above, but everything for the best possible in the circumstances. Inasmuch, therefore, as all creatures which naturally have the power of changing position by 20the use of limbs, must have one leg stationary with the weight of the body on it, and when they move forward the leg which has the leading position must be unencumbered, and the progression continuing the weight must shift and be taken off on this leading leg, it is evidently necessary for the back leg from being bent to become 25straight again, while the point of movement of the leg thrust forward and its lower part remain still. And so the legs must be jointed. And it is possible for this to take place and at the same time for the animal to go forward, if the leading leg has its articulation forwards, impossible if it be backwards. For, if it be 30forwards, the stretching out of the leg will be while the body is going forwards, but, if the other way, while it is going backwards.
711b
1 καὶ τῆς μὲν εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν τῆς δὲ εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν·
ἀναγκαῖον γὰρ ἐν τῇ συγκάμψει τοῦ σκέλους τοῦ μὲν μηροῦ
τὸ ἔσχατον εἰς τοὔπισθεν προάγειν, τὴν δὲ κνήμην ἀπὸ τῆς
καμπῆς εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν τὸν πόδα κινεῖν· εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν
5 δὲ τῆς καμπῆς οὔσης, οὔθ' ὑπεναντίαις κινήσεσι μιᾷ τε τῇ εἰς
τὸ ἔμπροσθεν ἡ λεχθεῖσα πορεία συμβήσεται. ὁ μὲν οὖν
ἄνθρωπος δίπους ὢν καὶ τὴν κατὰ τόπον μεταβολὴν κατὰ
φύσιν τοῖς σκέλεσι ποιούμενος διὰ τὴν εἰρημένην αἰτίαν κάμπτει
εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν τὰ σκέλη, τοὺς δὲ βραχίονας ἐπὶ τὸ
10 κοῖλον εὐλόγως· ἄχρηστοι γὰρ ἂν ἦσαν καμπτόμενοι εἰς τοὐναντίον
πρός τε τὴν τῶν χειρῶν χρῆσιν καὶ πρὸς τὴν τῆς τροφῆς
λῆψιν. τὰ δὲ τετράποδα καὶ τὰ ζῳοτόκα τὰ μὲν ἔμπροσθεν
σκέλη, ἐπειδὴ ἡγεῖταί τε τῆς πορείας αὐτῶν καὶ ἔστι
ταῦτ' ἐν τῷ μέρει τῷ ἔμπροσθεν τοῦ σώματος, ἀνάγκη κάμπτειν
15 ἐπὶ τὴν περιφέρειαν διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν ἥνπερ καὶ
οἱ ἄνθρωποι· κατὰ γὰρ τοῦτο ὁμοίως ἔχουσι. διόπερ καὶ τὰ
τετράποδα κάμπτουσιν εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν τὸν εἰρημένον τρόπον.
καὶ γὰρ οὕτως μὲν αὐτῶν τῆς κάμψεως γινομένης ἐπὶ πολὺ
δυνήσονται τοὺς πόδας μετεωρίζειν· ἐναντίως δὲ κάμπτοντες
20 μικρὸν ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς ἂν αὐτοὺς ἐμετεώριζον διὰ τὸ τόν τε
μηρὸν ὅλον καὶ τὴν καμπήν, ἀφ' ἧς ἡ κνήμη πέφυκεν, ὑπὸ
τῇ γαστρὶ γίγνεσθαι προϊόντος αὐτοῦ. τῶν δ' ὄπισθεν σκελῶν εἰ
μὲν ἦν εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν ἡ κάμψις, τῶν ποδῶν ὁ μετεωρισμὸς
ὁμοίως ἂν αὐτοῖς εἶχε τοῖς προσθίοις (ἐπὶ βραχὺ γὰρ
25 ἂν ἐγίγνετο καὶ τούτοις κατὰ τὴν ἄρσιν τῶν σκελῶν, τοῦ τε
μηροῦ καὶ τῆς καμπῆς ἀμφοτέρων ὑπὸ τὸν τῆς γαστρὸς τόπον
ὑποπιπτόντων), εἰ δ' εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν, καθάπερ καὶ νῦν
κάμπτουσιν, οὐθὲν ἐμπόδιον αὐτοῖς γίγνεται πρὸς τὴν πορείαν
ἐν τῇ τοιαύτῃ κινήσει τῶν ποδῶν. ἔτι τοῖς γε θηλαζομένοις
30 αὐτῶν καὶ πρὸς τὴν τοιαύτην λειτουργίαν ἀναγκαῖον ἢ βέλτιόν
γ' οὕτω κεκάμφθαι τὰ σκέλη· οὐ γὰρ ῥᾴδιον τὴν κάμψιν
ποιουμένων ἐντὸς ὑφ' αὑτὰ ἔχειν τὰ τέκνα καὶ σκεπάζειν.
1And again, if the flexion were backwards, the placing of the foot would be made by two movements and those contrary to one another, one, that is, backwards and one forwards; for in the bending together of the limb the lower end of the thigh would go backwards, and the 5shin would move the foot forwards away from the flexion; whereas, with the flexion forwards, the progression described will be performed not with contrary motions, but with one forward motion.
Now man, being a biped and making his change of position in the natural way with his two legs, bends them forward for the reasons set forth, but 10his arms bend backwards reasonably enough. If they bent the opposite way they would be useless for the work of the hands, and for taking food. But quadrupeds which are also viviparous necessarily bend their front legs forwards. For these lead off first when they move, and are also in the forepart of their body. The reason that they bend 15forward is the same as in the case of man, for in this respect they are like mankind. And so quadrupeds as well as men bend these legs forward in the manner described. Moreover, if the flexion is like this, they are enabled to lift their feet high; if they bent them in the opposite way they would only lift them a little way from the 20ground, because the whole thigh and the joint from which the shin-bone springs would lie under the belly as the beast moved forward. If, however, the flexion of the hind legs were forwards the lifting of these feet would be similar to that of the forefeet (for the hind legs, too, would in this case have only a little room for their 25lifting inasmuch as both the thigh and the knee-joint would fall under the position of the belly); but the flexion being backwards, as in fact it is, nothing comes in the way of their progression with this mode of moving the feet. Moreover, it is necessary or at least better for their legs to bend thus when they are suckling their young, 30with a view to such ministrations. If the flexion were inwards it would be difficult to keep their young under them and to shelter them.
Now man, being a biped and making his change of position in the natural way with his two legs, bends them forward for the reasons set forth, but 10his arms bend backwards reasonably enough. If they bent the opposite way they would be useless for the work of the hands, and for taking food. But quadrupeds which are also viviparous necessarily bend their front legs forwards. For these lead off first when they move, and are also in the forepart of their body. The reason that they bend 15forward is the same as in the case of man, for in this respect they are like mankind. And so quadrupeds as well as men bend these legs forward in the manner described. Moreover, if the flexion is like this, they are enabled to lift their feet high; if they bent them in the opposite way they would only lift them a little way from the 20ground, because the whole thigh and the joint from which the shin-bone springs would lie under the belly as the beast moved forward. If, however, the flexion of the hind legs were forwards the lifting of these feet would be similar to that of the forefeet (for the hind legs, too, would in this case have only a little room for their 25lifting inasmuch as both the thigh and the knee-joint would fall under the position of the belly); but the flexion being backwards, as in fact it is, nothing comes in the way of their progression with this mode of moving the feet. Moreover, it is necessary or at least better for their legs to bend thus when they are suckling their young, 30with a view to such ministrations. If the flexion were inwards it would be difficult to keep their young under them and to shelter them.
Chapter 13 (712a1–22)
712a
1 Ὄντων δὲ τεττάρων τρόπων τῆς κάμψεως κατὰ τοὺς
συνδέσμους (ἀνάγκη γὰρ κάμπτειν ἢ ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον καὶ τὰ
πρόσθια καὶ τὰ ὀπίσθια, καθάπερ ἐφ' οἷς Α, ἢ ἐπὶ τοὐναντίον
ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν, καθάπερ ἐφ' οἷς Β, ἢ ἀντεστραμμένως
5 μὴ ἐπὶ τὰ αὐτά, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πρόσθια ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν,
τὰ δ' ὀπίσθια ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, καθάπερ ἐφ' οἷς τὸ Γ,
ἢ τοὐναντίον τούτοις τὰ μὲν κυρτὰ πρὸς ἄλληλα, τὰ δὲ κοῖλα
ἐκτός, καθάπερ ἔχει ἐφ' οἷς τὸ Δ), ὡς μὲν ἔχει ἐφ'
οἷς τὸ Α ἢ τὸ Β, οὐθὲν κάμπτεται οὔτε τῶν διπόδων οὔτε τῶν
10 τετραπόδων, ὡς δὲ τὸ Γ, τὰ τετράποδα, ὡς δὲ τὸ Δ, τῶν
μὲν τετραπόδων οὐθὲν πλὴν ἐλέφας, ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος τοὺς βραχίονας
καὶ τὰ σκέλη· τοὺς μὲν γὰρ ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον κάμπτει,
τὰ δὲ σκέλη ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν. ἀεὶ δ' ἐναλλὰξ ἐναντίως ἔχει
τὰ κῶλα τὰς κάμψεις τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, οἷον τὸ ὠλέκρανον
15 ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, ὁ δὲ καρπὸς ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν, καὶ
πάλιν ὁ ὦμος ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν· ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν σκελῶν
ὁ μηρὸς ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, τὸ δὲ γόνυ ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν, ὁ
δὲ ποὺς τοὐναντίον ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον. καὶ τὰ κάτω δὴ πρὸς τὰ
ἄνω φανερὸν ὅτι ἐναντίως· ἡ γὰρ ἀρχὴ ὑπεναντίως, ὁ μὲν
20 ὦμος ἐπὶ τὸ κυρτόν, ὁ δὲ μηρὸς ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον· διὸ καὶ
ὁ μὲν ποὺς ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον, ὁ δὲ καρπὸς τῆς χειρὸς ἐπὶ τὸ
κυρτόν.
1Now there are four modes of flexion if we take the combinations in pairs. Fore and hind may bend either both backwards, as the figures marked A, or in the opposite way both forwards, as in B, or in converse ways and not in the same direction, 5as in C where the fore bend forwards and the hind bend backwards, or as in D, the opposite way to C, where the convexities are turned towards one another and the concavities outwards. Now no biped or quadruped bends his limbs like the figures A or B, but the quadrupeds like C, and like D only 10the elephant among quadrupeds and man if you consider his arms as well as his legs. For he bends his arms concavely and his legs convexly.
In man, too, the flexions of the limbs are always alternately opposite, for example the elbow bends back, but the wrist of the hand forwards, and again the 15shoulder forwards. In like fashion, too, in the case of the legs, the hip backwards, the knee forwards, the ankle in the opposite way backwards. And plainly the lower limbs are opposed in this respect to the upper, because the first joints are opposites, the shoulder bending forwards, the hip backwards; 20wherefore also the ankle bends backwards, and the wrist of the hand forwards.
In man, too, the flexions of the limbs are always alternately opposite, for example the elbow bends back, but the wrist of the hand forwards, and again the 15shoulder forwards. In like fashion, too, in the case of the legs, the hip backwards, the knee forwards, the ankle in the opposite way backwards. And plainly the lower limbs are opposed in this respect to the upper, because the first joints are opposites, the shoulder bending forwards, the hip backwards; 20wherefore also the ankle bends backwards, and the wrist of the hand forwards.
Chapter 14 (712a23–712b21)
Αἱ μὲν οὖν κάμψεις τῶν σκελῶν τοῦτόν τε τὸν τρόπον
ἔχουσι καὶ διὰ τὰς αἰτίας τὰς εἰρημένας, κινεῖται δὲ τὰ
25 ὀπίσθια πρὸς τὰ ἔμπροσθεν κατὰ διάμετρον· μετὰ γὰρ τὸ
δεξιὸν τῶν ἔμπροσθεν τὸ ἀριστερὸν τῶν ὄπισθεν κινοῦσιν, εἶτα
τὸ ἀριστερὸν τῶν ἔμπροσθεν, μετὰ δὲ τοῦτο τὸ δεξιὸν τῶν
ὄπισθεν. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι εἰ μὲν τὰ ἔμπροσθεν ἅμα καὶ πρῶτον,
διέσπαστο ἂν ἢ καὶ προπετὴς ἂν ἐγίνετο ἡ βάδισις
30 καὶ οἷον ἐφελκομένοις τοῖς ὄπισθεν. ἔτι δ' οὐ πορεία ἀλλὰ ἅλσις
τὸ τοιοῦτον· χαλεπὸν δὲ συνεχῆ ποιεῖσθαι τὴν μεταβολὴν
ἁλλόμενα. σημεῖον δέ· ταχὺ γὰρ ἀπαγορεύουσι καὶ
νῦν τῶν ἵππων ὅσοι τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον ποιοῦνται τὴν κίνησιν,
οἷον οἱ πομπεύοντες. χωρὶς μὲν οὖν τοῖς ἔμπροσθεν καὶ ὄπισθεν
This is the way then the limbs bend, and for the reasons given. But the hind limbs move criss-cross with the fore limbs; after the off fore they move the near hind, then the near fore, and then the off hind. The reason 25is that (a) if they moved the forelegs together and first, the animal would be wrenched, and the progression would be a stumbling forwards with the hind parts as it were dragged after. Again, that would not be walking but jumping, and it is hard to make a continuous change of place, jumping all 30the time. Here is evidence of what I say; even as it is, all horses that move in this way soon begin to refuse, for example the horses in a religious procession. For these reasons the fore limbs and the hind limbs move in this separate way.
712b
1 διὰ ταῦτα οὐ ποιοῦνται τὴν κίνησιν. εἰ δὲ τοῖς δεξιοῖς
ἀμφοτέροις πρώτοις, ἔξω ἂν ἐγίγνοντο τῶν ἐρεισμάτων καὶ
ἔπιπτον ἄν. εἰ δὴ ἀνάγκη μὲν ἢ τούτων τῶν τρόπων ὁποτερονοῦν
ποιεῖσθαι τὴν κίνησιν ἢ κατὰ διάμετρον, μὴ ἐνδέχεται
5 δ' ἐκείνων μηδέτερον, ἀνάγκη κινεῖσθαι κατὰ διάμετρον· οὕτω
γὰρ κινούμενα ὥσπερ εἴρηται οὐδέτερα τούτων οἷόν τε πάσχειν.
καὶ διὰ τοῦτο οἱ ἵπποι καὶ ὅσα τοιαῦτα, ἵσταται
προβεβηκότα κατὰ διάμετρον, καὶ οὐ τοῖς δεξιοῖς ἢ τοῖς
ἀριστεροῖς ἀμφοτέροις ἅμα. τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ὅσα
10 πλείους πόδας ἔχει τεττάρων ποιεῖται τὴν κίνησιν· ἀεὶ γὰρ
ἐν τοῖς τέτταρσι τοῖς ἐφεξῆς τὰ ὀπίσθια πρὸς τὰ ἔμπροσθεν
κινεῖται κατὰ διάμετρον· δῆλον δ' ἐπὶ τοῖς βραδέως κινουμένοις.
καὶ οἱ καρκίνοι δὲ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον κινοῦνται· τῶν
πολυπόδων γάρ εἰσιν. ἀεὶ γὰρ καὶ οὗτοι κατὰ διάμετρον
15 κινοῦνται, ἐφ' ὅπερ ἂν ποιῶνται τὴν πορείαν. ἰδίως γὰρ τοῦτο
τὸ ζῷον ποιεῖται τὴν κίνησιν· μόνον γὰρ οὐ κινεῖται ἐπὶ τὸ
πρόσθεν τῶν ζῴων, ἀλλ' ἐπὶ τὸ πλάγιον. ἀλλ' ἐπεὶ τοῖς
ὄμμασι διώρισται τὸ πρόσθιον, ἡ φύσις πεποίηκεν ἀκολουθεῖν
δυναμένους τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς τοῖς κώλοις· κινοῦνται γὰρ εἰς τὸ
20 πλάγιον αὐτοῖς, ὥστε τρόπον τινὰ καὶ τοὺς καρκίνους κινεῖσθαι
διὰ τοῦτ' ἐπὶ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν.
1Again, (b) if they moved both the right legs first the weight would be outside the supporting limbs and they would fall. If then it is necessary to move in one or other of these ways or criss-cross fashion, and neither of these two is satisfactory, 5they must move criss-cross; for moving in the way we have said they cannot possibly experience either of these untoward results. And this is why horses and such-like animals stand still with their legs put forward criss-cross, not with the right or the left put forward together at once. In the same 10fashion animals with more than four legs make their movements; if you take two consecutive pairs of legs the hind move criss-cross with the forelegs; you can see this if you watch them moving slowly. Even crabs move in this way, and they are polypods. They, too, always move criss-cross in whichever direction 15they are making progress. For in direction this animal has a movement all its own; it is the only animal that moves not forwards, but obliquely. Yet since forwards is a distinction relative to the line of vision, Nature has made its eyes able to conform to its limbs, for its eyes can move themselves obliquely, 20and therefore after a fashion crabs are no exception but in this sense move forwards.
Chapter 15 (712b22–713a25)
Οἱ δ' ὄρνιθες τὰ σκέλη καθάπερ τὰ τετράποδα κάμπτουσι.
τρόπον γάρ τινα παραπλησίως ἡ φύσις αὐτῶν ἔχει·
τοῖς γὰρ ὄρνισιν αἱ πτέρυγες ἀντὶ τῶν προσθίων σκελῶν εἰσι.
25 διὸ καὶ κεκαμμέναι τὸν αὐτόν εἰσι τρόπον ὥσπερ ἐκείνοις
τὰ πρόσθια σκέλη, ἐπεὶ τῆς ἐν τῇ πορείᾳ κινήσεως τούτοις
ἀπὸ τῶν πτερύγων ἡ κατὰ φύσιν ἀρχὴ τῆς μεταβολῆς
ἐστι· πτῆσις γάρ ἐστιν ἡ τούτων οἰκεία κίνησις. διόπερ
ἀφαιρεθεισῶν τούτων οὔθ' ἑστάναι οὔτε προϊέναι δύναιτ' ἂν
30 οὐθεὶς | ὄρνις. ἔτι δίποδος ὄντος καὶ οὐκ ὀρθοῦ, καὶ τὰ ἔμπροσθεν
μέρη τοῦ σώματος κουφότερα ἔχοντος, ἢ ἀναγκαῖον ἢ βέλτιον
πρὸς τὸ ἑστάναι δύνασθαι τὸν μηρὸν οὕτως ὑποκείμενον
ἔχειν ὡς νῦν ἔχει, λέγω δ' ὅτι εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν πεφυκότα.
ἀλλὰ μὴν εἰ δεῖ τοῦτον ἔχειν τὸν τρόπον, ἀνάγκη τὴν κάμψιν
Birds bend their legs in the same way as quadrupeds. For their natural construction is broadly speaking nearly the same. That is, in birds the wings are a substitute for the forelegs; and so they are bent in the same 25way as the forelegs of a quadruped, since when they move to progress the natural beginning of change is from the wings (as in quadrupeds from the forelegs). Flight in fact is their appropriate movement. And so if the wings be cut off a bird can neither stand still nor go forwards.
Again, the bird though a 30biped is not erect, and has the forward parts of the body lighter than the hind, and so it is necessary (or at least preferable for the standing posture) to have the thigh so placed below the body as it actually is, I mean growing towards the back.
Again, the bird though a 30biped is not erect, and has the forward parts of the body lighter than the hind, and so it is necessary (or at least preferable for the standing posture) to have the thigh so placed below the body as it actually is, I mean growing towards the back.
713a
1 ἐπὶ τὸ κοῖλον γίνεσθαι τοῦ σκέλους, καθάπερ τοῖς τετράποσιν
ἐπὶ τῶν ὀπισθίων, διὰ τὴν αὐτὴν αἰτίαν ἥνπερ εἴπομεν
ἐπὶ τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ ζῳοτόκων. ὅλως δὲ οἵ τε ὄρνιθες
καὶ τὰ ὁλόπτερα τῶν πετομένων καὶ τὰ ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ νευστικά,
5 ὅσα αὐτῶν δι' ὀργάνων τὴν ἐπὶ τοῦ ὑγροῦ ποιεῖται πορείαν,
οὐ χαλεπὸν ἰδεῖν ὅτι βέλτιον ἐκ πλαγίου τὴν τῶν εἰρημένων
μερῶν πρόσφυσιν ἔχειν, καθάπερ καὶ φαίνεται νῦν
ὑπάρχειν αὐτοῖς ἐπί τε τῶν ὀρνίθων καὶ τῶν ὁλοπτέρων. ταὐτὸ
δὲ τοῦτο καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἰχθύων· τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ὄρνισιν αἱ
10 πτέρυγες, τοῖς δ' ἐνύδροις τὰ πτερύγια. [τὰ δὲ πτίλα τοῖς
ὁλοπτέροις ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου προσπέφυκεν.] οὕτω γὰρ ἂν τάχιστα
καὶ ἰσχυρότατα <συστέλλοντα καὶ> διαστέλλοντα τὰ μὲν τὸν
ἀέρα τὰ δὲ | τὸ ὑγρὸν ποιοῖτο τὴν κίνησιν· εἰς γὰρ τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ
τὰ | ὄπισθεν μόρια τοῦ σώματος ἐπακολουθοίη <ἂν> ὑπείκοντι
15 φερόμενα τὰ μὲν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ τὰ δ' ἐν τῷ ἀέρι. τὰ δὲ
τρωγλόδυτα τῶν τετραπόδων καὶ ᾠοτόκων, οἷον οἵ τε κροκόδειλοι
καὶ σαῦροι καὶ ἀσκαλαβῶται καὶ ἑμύδες τε καὶ
χελῶναι, πάντα ἐκ τοῦ πλαγίου προσπεφυκότα τὰ σκέλη
ἔχει καὶ ἐπὶ τῇ γῇ κατατεταμένα, καὶ κάμπτει εἰς τὸ
20 πλάγιον, διὰ τὸ οὕτω χρήσιμα εἶναι πρὸς τὴν τῆς ὑποδύσεως
ῥᾳστώνην καὶ πρὸς τὴν ἐπὶ τοῖς ᾠοῖς ἐφεδρείαν καὶ
φυλακήν. ἔξω δ' ὄντων αὐτῶν, ἀναγκαῖον τοὺς μηροὺς προςστέλλοντα
καὶ ὑποτιθέμενα ὑφ' αὑτὰ τὸν μετεωρισμὸν τοῦ
ὅλου σώματος ποιεῖσθαι. τούτου δὲ γινομένου κάμπτειν αὐτὰ
25 οὐχ οἷόν τε ἄλλως ἢ ἔξω.
1If then it must have this situation the flexion of the leg must be backwards, as in the hind legs of quadrupeds. The reasons are the same as those given in the case of viviparous quadrupeds.
If now we survey generally birds and winged insects, and 5animals which swim in a watery medium, all I mean that make their progress in water by dint of organs of movement, it is not difficult to see that it is better to have the attachment of the parts in question oblique to the frame, exactly as in fact we see it to be both in birds and insects. And this same 10arrangement obtains also among fishes. Among birds the wings are attached obliquely; so are the fins in water animals, and the feather-like wings of insects. In this way they divide the air or water most quickly and with most force and so effect their movement. For the hinder parts in this way would follow forwards 15as they are carried along in the yielding medium, fish in the water, birds in the air.
Of oviparous quadrupeds all those that live in holes, like crocodiles, lizards, spotted lizards, freshwater tortoises, and turtles, have their legs attached obliquely as their whole body sprawls over the ground, and bend 20them obliquely. The reason is that this is useful for ease in creeping into holes, and for sitting upon their eggs and guarding them. And as they are splayed outwards they must of necessity tuck in their thighs and put them under them in order to achieve the lifting of the whole body. In view of this they 25cannot bend them otherwise than outwards.
If now we survey generally birds and winged insects, and 5animals which swim in a watery medium, all I mean that make their progress in water by dint of organs of movement, it is not difficult to see that it is better to have the attachment of the parts in question oblique to the frame, exactly as in fact we see it to be both in birds and insects. And this same 10arrangement obtains also among fishes. Among birds the wings are attached obliquely; so are the fins in water animals, and the feather-like wings of insects. In this way they divide the air or water most quickly and with most force and so effect their movement. For the hinder parts in this way would follow forwards 15as they are carried along in the yielding medium, fish in the water, birds in the air.
Of oviparous quadrupeds all those that live in holes, like crocodiles, lizards, spotted lizards, freshwater tortoises, and turtles, have their legs attached obliquely as their whole body sprawls over the ground, and bend 20them obliquely. The reason is that this is useful for ease in creeping into holes, and for sitting upon their eggs and guarding them. And as they are splayed outwards they must of necessity tuck in their thighs and put them under them in order to achieve the lifting of the whole body. In view of this they 25cannot bend them otherwise than outwards.
Chapter 16 (713a26–713b20)
Τὰ δ' ἄναιμα τῶν ὑποπόδων ὅτι μὲν πολύποδά ἐστι
καὶ οὐθὲν αὐτῶν τετράπουν, πρότερον ἡμῖν εἴρηται· διότι δ'
αὐτῶν ἀναγκαῖον ἦν τὰ σκέλη πλὴν τῶν ἐσχάτων ἔκ τε
τοῦ πλαγίου προσπεφυκέναι καὶ εἰς τὸ ἄνω τὰς καμπὰς
30 ἔχειν, καὶ αὐτὰ ὑπόβλαισα εἶναι εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν, φανερόν.
ἁπάντων γὰρ τῶν τοιούτων ἀναγκαῖόν ἐστι τὰ μέσα τῶν σκελῶν
καὶ ἡγούμενα εἶναι καὶ ἑπόμενα. εἰ οὖν ὑπ' αὐτοῖς ἦν,
We have already stated the fact that non-sanguineous animals with limbs are polypods and none of them quadrupeds. And the reason why their legs, except the extreme pairs, were necessarily attached obliquely and had their flexions upwards, and the legs themselves were 30somewhat turned under (bandy-shape) and backwards is plain. In all such creatures the intermediate legs both lead and follow.
713b
1 ἔδει αὐτὰ καὶ εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν καὶ εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν τὴν καμπὴν
ἔχειν, διὰ μὲν τὸ ἡγεῖσθαι εἰς τὸ ἔμπροσθεν, διὰ δὲ
τὸ ἀκολουθεῖν εἰς τὸ ὄπισθεν. ἐπεὶ δ' ἀμφότερα συμβαίνειν
ἀναγκαῖον αὐτοῖς, διὰ τοῦτο βεβλαίσωταί τε καὶ εἰς τὸ
5 πλάγιον ἔχει τὰς καμπάς, πλὴν τῶν ἐσχάτων· ταῦτα δ'
ὥσπερ πέφυκε μᾶλλον, τὰ μὲν ὡς ἑπόμενα τὰ δ' ὡς ἡγούμενα.
ἔτι δὲ κέκαμπται τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον καὶ διὰ τὸ πλῆθος
τῶν σκελῶν· ἧττον γὰρ ἂν οὕτως ἐν τῇ πορείᾳ ἐμπόδιά
τε αὐτὰ αὑτοῖς εἴη καὶ προσκόπτοι. ἡ δὲ βλαισότης αὐτοῖς
10 ἐστι διὰ τὸ τρωγλοδυτικὰ εἶναι πάντα ἢ τὰ πλεῖστα· οὐ
γὰρ οἷόν τε ὑψηλὰ εἶναι τὰ ζῶντα τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον. οἱ δὲ καρκίνοι
τῶν πολυπόδων περιττότατα πεφύκασιν· οὔτε γὰρ εἰς τὸ | πρόσθεν
ποιοῦνται τὴν πορείαν πλὴν ὥσπερ εἴρηται πρότερον, | πολλούς
τε τοὺς ἡγουμένους <πόδας> ἔχουσι μόνοι τῶν ζῴων. τούτου δ'
15 αἴτιον ἡ σκληρότης τῶν ποδῶν, καὶ ὅτι οὐ χρῶνται νεύσεως
χάριν αὐτοῖς ἀλλὰ πορείας· πεζεύοντα γὰρ διατελοῦσι.
πάντων μὲν οὖν τῶν πολυπόδων εἰς τὸ πλάγιον αἱ καμπαί,
ὥσπερ καὶ τῶν τετραπόδων ὅσα τρωγλόδυτα· τοιαῦτα δ'
ἐστὶν οἷον σαῦραι καὶ κροκόδειλοι καὶ τὰ πολλὰ τῶν ᾠοτοκούντων.
20 αἴτιον δ' ὅτι τρωγλοδυτεῖ τὰ μὲν τοῖς τόκοις,
τὰ δὲ καὶ τῷ βίῳ παντί.
1If then they lay under them, they must have had their flexion both forwards and backwards; on account of leading, forwards; and on account of following, backwards. Now since they have to do both, for this reason their limbs are turned under and bent obliquely, except the two 5extreme pairs. (These two are more natural in their movement, the front leading and the back following.) Another reason for this kind of flexion is the number of their legs; arranged in this way they would interfere less with one another in progression and not knock together. But the reason that they are bandy is that all of them or most of them live 10in holes, for creatures living so cannot possibly be high above the ground.
But crabs are in nature the oddest of all polypods; they do not progress forwards except in the sense explained above, they are the only animals which have more than one pair of leading limbs. The explanation of this is the hardness of their limbs, and the fact that they 15use them not for swimming but for walking; they always keep on the ground. However, the flexion of the limbs of all polypods is oblique, like that of the quadrupeds which live in holes-for example lizards and crocodiles and most of the oviparous quadrupeds. And the explanation is that some of them in their breeding periods, and some all their life, 20live in holes.
But crabs are in nature the oddest of all polypods; they do not progress forwards except in the sense explained above, they are the only animals which have more than one pair of leading limbs. The explanation of this is the hardness of their limbs, and the fact that they 15use them not for swimming but for walking; they always keep on the ground. However, the flexion of the limbs of all polypods is oblique, like that of the quadrupeds which live in holes-for example lizards and crocodiles and most of the oviparous quadrupeds. And the explanation is that some of them in their breeding periods, and some all their life, 20live in holes.
Chapter 17 (713b21–714a19)
ἀλλὰ τῶν μὲν ἄλλων βλαισοῦνται
τὰ κῶλα διὰ τὸ μαλακὰ εἶναι, τῶν δὲ καράβων ὄντων
σκληροδέρμων οἱ πόδες εἰσὶν ἐπὶ τῷ νεῖν καὶ οὐ τοῦ
βαδίζειν χάριν· τῶν δὲ καρκίνων ἡ κάμψις εἰς τὸ πλάγιον,
25 καὶ οὐ βεβλαίσωται ὥσπερ τοῖς τε ᾠοτόκοις τῶν τετραπόδων
καὶ τοῖς ἀναίμοις καὶ πολύποσι διὰ τὸ σκληρόδερμα
εἶναι τὰ κῶλα καὶ ὀστρακώδη, ὄντι οὐ νευστικῷ καὶ
τρωγλοδύτῃ· πρὸς τῇ γῇ γὰρ ὁ βίος. καὶ στρογγύλος δὲ
τὴν μορφήν, καὶ οὐκ ἔχων ὀρροπύγιον ὥσπερ ὁ κάραβος·
30 πρὸς τὴν νεῦσιν γὰρ τοῖς καράβοις χρήσιμον, ὁ δ' οὐ νευστικός.
καὶ ὅμοιον δὴ τῷ ὄπισθεν τὸ πλάγιον ἔχει μόνος,
διὰ τὸ πολλοὺς ἔχειν τοὺς ἡγεμόνας πόδας. τούτου δ' αἴτιον
Now the rest have bandy legs because they are soft-skinned, but the crayfish is hard-skinned and its limbs are for swimming and not for walking (and so are not bandy). Crabs, too, have their limbs bent obliquely, but not bandy like oviparous quadrupeds and non-sanguineous polypods, because their limbs have a hard and shell-like skin, 25although they don't swim but live in holes; they live in fact on the ground. Moreover, their shape is like a disk, as compared with the crayfish which is elongated, and they haven't a tail like the crayfish; a tail is useful to the crayfish for swimming, but the crab is not a swimming creature. Further, it alone has its side equivalent to a hinder 30part, because it has many leading feet. The explanation of this is that its flexions are not forward nor its legs turned in under (bandy).
714a
1 ὅτι οὐ κάμπτει εἰς τὸ πρόσθεν οὐδὲ βεβλαίσωται. τοῦ δὲ μὴ
βεβλαισῶσθαι τὸ αἴτιον πρότερον εἴρηται, ἡ σκληρότης καὶ
τὸ ὀστρακῶδες τοῦ δέρματος. ἀνάγκη δὴ διὰ ταῦτα πᾶσί
τε προηγεῖσθαι καὶ εἰς τὸ πλάγιον, εἰς μὲν τὸ πλάγιον
5 ὅτι εἰς τὸ πλάγιον ἡ κάμψις, πᾶσι δ' ὅτι ἐνεπόδιζον ἂν
οἱ ἠρεμοῦντες πόδες τοῖς κινουμένοις. οἱ δὲ ψηττοειδεῖς τῶν
ἰχθύων, ὥσπερ οἱ ἑτερόφθαλμοι βαδίζουσιν, οὕτω νέουσι·
διέστραπται γὰρ αὐτῶν ἡ φύσις. οἱ δὲ στεγανόποδες τῶν
ὀρνίθων νέουσι τοῖς ποσί, καὶ διὰ μὲν τὸ τὸν ἀέρα δέχεσθαι
10 καὶ ἀναπνεῖν δίποδές εἰσι, διὰ δὲ τὸ ἐν ὑγρῷ τὸν βίον
ἔχειν στεγανόποδες· ἀντὶ πτερυγίων γὰρ χρήσιμοι οἱ πόδες
αὐτοῖς τοιοῦτοι ὄντες. ἔχουσι δὲ τὰ σκέλη οὐχ ὥσπερ οἱ ἄλλοι
κατὰ μέσον, ἀλλ' ὄπισθεν μᾶλλον· βραχυσκελῶν γὰρ αὐτῶν
ὄντων ὄπισθεν ὄντα πρὸς τὴν νεῦσιν χρήσιμα. βραχυσκελεῖς
15 δ' εἰσὶν οἱ τοιοῦτοι διὰ τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ μήκους τῶν σκελῶν
ἀφελοῦσαν τὴν φύσιν προσθεῖναι τοῖς ποσί, καὶ
ἀντὶ τοῦ μήκους πάχος ἀποδοῦναι τοῖς σκέλεσι καὶ πλάτος
τοῖς ποσί· χρήσιμοι γὰρ πλατεῖς ὄντες μᾶλλον ἢ μακροὶ
πρὸς τὸ ἀποβιάζεσθαι τὸ ὑγρόν, ὅταν νέωσιν.
1We have given above the reason why its legs are not turned in under, that is the hardness and shell-like character of its integument.
For these reasons then it must lead off with more than one limb, and move obliquely; obliquely, because the flexion is oblique; 5and with more than one limb, because otherwise the limbs that were still would have got in the way of those that were moving.
Fishes of the flat kind swim with their heads twisted, as one-eyed men walk; they have their natural shape distorted. Web-footed birds swim with their feet; because they breath the air and have lungs they 10are bipeds, but because they have their home in the water they are webbed; by this arrangement their feet serve them instead of fins. They have their legs too, not like the rest of birds in the centre of their body, but rather set back. Their legs are short, and being set back are serviceable for swimming. The reason for their 15having short legs is that nature has added to their feet by subtracting from the length of their limbs; instead of length she gives stoutness to the legs and breadth to the feet. Broad feet are more useful than long for pushing away the water when they are swimming.
For these reasons then it must lead off with more than one limb, and move obliquely; obliquely, because the flexion is oblique; 5and with more than one limb, because otherwise the limbs that were still would have got in the way of those that were moving.
Fishes of the flat kind swim with their heads twisted, as one-eyed men walk; they have their natural shape distorted. Web-footed birds swim with their feet; because they breath the air and have lungs they 10are bipeds, but because they have their home in the water they are webbed; by this arrangement their feet serve them instead of fins. They have their legs too, not like the rest of birds in the centre of their body, but rather set back. Their legs are short, and being set back are serviceable for swimming. The reason for their 15having short legs is that nature has added to their feet by subtracting from the length of their limbs; instead of length she gives stoutness to the legs and breadth to the feet. Broad feet are more useful than long for pushing away the water when they are swimming.
Chapter 18 (714a20–714b7)
20 Εὐλόγως δὲ καὶ τὰ μὲν πτηνὰ πόδας ἔχει, οἱ δ'
ἰχθύες ἄποδες· τοῖς μὲν γὰρ ὁ βίος ἐν τῷ ξηρῷ, μετέωρον
δ' ἀεὶ μένειν ἀδύνατον, ὥστ' ἀνάγκη πόδας ἔχειν· τοῖς
δ' ἰχθύσιν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ ὁ βίος, καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ δέχονται, οὐ
There is reason, too, for winged creatures having feet, but 20fish none. The former have their home in the dry medium, and cannot remain always in mid air; they must therefore have feet. Fish on the contrary live in the wet medium, and take in water, not air.
714b
1 τὸν ἀέρα. τὰ μὲν οὖν πτερύγια χρήσιμα πρὸς τὸ νεῖν, οἱ
δὲ πόδες ἄχρηστοι. εἰ δ' ἄμφω εἶχον, ἄναιμοι ἂν ἦσαν.
ὁμοίως δ' ἔχουσιν οἱ ὄρνιθες τρόπον τινὰ τοῖς ἰχθύσι. τοῖς
μὲν γὰρ ὄρνισιν ἄνω αἱ πτέρυγές εἰσι, τοῖς δὲ πτερύγια
5 δύο ἐν τῷ πρανεῖ· καὶ τοῖς μὲν ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις οἱ πόδες,
τοῖς δὲ ἔν τε τοῖς ὑπτίοις καὶ ἐγγὺς τῶν πρανῶν πτερύγια
τοῖς πλείστοις· καὶ οἱ μὲν ὀρροπύγιον ἔχουσιν, οἱ δ' οὐραῖον.
1Fins are useful for swimming, but feet not. And if they had both they would be non-sanguineous. There is a broad similarity between birds and fishes in the organs of locomotion. Birds have their wings on the superior part, similarly fish have two pectoral fins; again, birds have legs on 5their under parts and near the wings; similarly, most fish have two fins on the under parts and near the pectorals. Birds, too, have a tail and fish a tail-fin.
Chapter 19 (714b8–23)
Περὶ δὲ τῶν ὀστρακοδέρμων ἀπορήσειεν ἄν τις τίς ἡ
κίνησις, καὶ εἰ μὴ ἔχουσι δεξιὸν καὶ ἀριστερόν, πόθεν κινοῦνται·
10 φαίνονται δὲ κινούμενα. ἢ ὥσπερ ἀνάπηρον δεῖ τιθέναι
πᾶν τὸ τοιοῦτον γένος, καὶ κινεῖσθαι ὁμοίως οἷον εἴ τις ἀποκόψειε
τῶν ὑποπόδων τὰ σκέλη, ὥσπερ ἡ φώκη καὶ ἡ
νυκτερίς· καὶ γὰρ ταῦτα τετράποδα, κακῶς δ' ἐστί. τὰ
δ' ὀστρακόδερμα κινεῖται μέν, κινεῖται δὲ παρὰ φύσιν· οὐ
15 γάρ ἐστι κινητικά, ἀλλ' ὡς μὲν μόνιμα καὶ προσπεφυκότα
κινητικά, ὡς δὲ πορευτικὰ μόνιμα. ἔχουσι δὲ φαύλως καὶ
οἱ καρκίνοι τὰ δεξιά, ἐπεὶ ἔχουσί γε. δηλοῖ δ' ἡ χηλή·
μείζων γὰρ καὶ ἰσχυροτέρα ἡ δεξιά, ὡς βουλομένων διωρίσθαι
τῶν ἀριστερῶν καὶ τῶν δεξιῶν.
20 Τὰ μὲν οὖν περὶ τῶν μορίων, τῶν τ' ἄλλων αὐτῶν καὶ τῶν
περὶ τὴν πορείαν τῶν ζῴων καὶ περὶ πᾶσαν τὴν κατὰ τόπον
μεταβολήν, τοῦτον ἔχει τὸν τρόπον· τούτων δὲ διωρισμένων
ἐχόμενόν ἐστι θεωρῆσαι περὶ ψυχῆς.
A difficulty may be suggested as to the movements of molluscs, that is, as to where that movement originates; for they have no distinction of left and right. Now observation shows them moving. We must, I 10think, treat all this class as mutilated, and as moving in the way in which limbed creatures do when one cuts off their legs, or as analogous with the seal and the bat. Both the latter are quadrupeds but misshapen. Now molluscs do move, but move in a manner contrary to nature. They are not moving things, but are moving if as sedentary creatures they are compared 15with zoophytes, and sedentary if classed with progressing animals.
As to right and left, crabs, too, show the distinction poorly, still they do show it. You can see it in the claw; the right claw is larger and stronger, as though the right and left sides were trying to get distinguished.
The structure of animals, both in their other parts, and especially in 20those which concern progression and any movement in place, is as we have now described. It remains, after determining these questions, to investigate the problems of Life and Death.
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As to right and left, crabs, too, show the distinction poorly, still they do show it. You can see it in the claw; the right claw is larger and stronger, as though the right and left sides were trying to get distinguished.
The structure of animals, both in their other parts, and especially in 20those which concern progression and any movement in place, is as we have now described. It remains, after determining these questions, to investigate the problems of Life and Death.
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