Bekker (Berlin, 1831) · Forster (1914)
Forster (1914)
Chapter 1 (391a1–391b8)
391a
1 Πολλάκις μὲν ἔμοιγε θεῖόν τι καὶ δαιμόνιον ὄντως χρῆμα,
ὦ Ἀλέξανδρε, ἡ φιλοσοφία ἔδοξεν εἶναι, μάλιστα δὲ ἐν οἷς
μόνη διαραμένη πρὸς τὴν τῶν ὄντων θέαν ἐσπούδασε γνῶναι
τὴν ἐν αὐτοῖς ἀλήθειαν, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ταύτης ἀποστάντων
5 διὰ τὸ ὕψος καὶ τὸ μέγεθος, αὕτη τὸ πρᾶγμα οὐκ ἔδεισεν
οὐδ' αὑτὴν τῶν καλλίστων ἀπηξίωσεν, ἀλλὰ καὶ συγγενεστάτην
ἑαυτῇ καὶ μάλιστα πρέπουσαν ἐνόμισεν εἶναι τὴν ἐκείνων
μάθησιν. Ἐπειδὴ γὰρ οὐχ οἷόν τε ἦν τῷ σώματι εἰς τὸν οὐράνιον
ἀφικέσθαι τόπον καὶ τὴν γῆν ἐκλιπόντα τὸν ἱερὸν
10 ἐκεῖνον χῶρον κατοπτεῦσαι, καθάπερ οἱ ἀνόητοί ποτε ἐπενόουν
Ἀλῳάδαι, ἡ γοῦν ψυχὴ διὰ φιλοσοφίας, λαβοῦσα
ἡγεμόνα τὸν νοῦν, ἐπεραιώθη καὶ ἐξεδήμησεν, ἀκοπίατόν
τινα ὁδὸν εὑροῦσα, καὶ τὰ πλεῖστον ἀλλήλων ἀφεστῶτα τοῖς
τόποις τῇ διανοίᾳ συνεφόρησε, ῥᾳδίως, οἶμαι, τὰ συγγενῆ
15 γνωρίσασα, καὶ θείῳ ψυχῆς ὄμματι τὰ θεῖα καταλαβομένη,
τοῖς τε ἀνθρώποις προφητεύουσα. Τοῦτο δὲ ἔπαθε, καθ' ὅσον
οἷόν τε ἦν, πᾶσιν ἀφθόνως μεταδοῦναι βουληθεῖσα τῶν παρ'
αὑτῇ τιμίων. Διὸ καὶ τοὺς μετὰ σπουδῆς διαγράψαντας ἡμῖν
ἑνὸς τόπου φύσιν ἢ μιᾶς σχῆμα πόλεως ἢ ποταμοῦ μέγεθος
20 ἢ ὄρους κάλλος, οἷά τινες ἤδη πεποιήκασι, φράζοντες οἱ
μὲν τὴν Ὄσσαν, οἱ δὲ τὴν Νύσσαν, οἱ δὲ τὸ Κωρύκιον ἄντρον,
οἱ δὲ ὁτιοῦν ἔτυχε τῶν ἐπὶ μέρους, οἰκτίσειεν ἄν τις
τῆς μικροψυχίας, τὰ τυχόντα ἐκπεπληγμένους καὶ μέγα
φρονοῦντας ἐπὶ θεωρίᾳ μικρᾷ. Τοῦτο δὲ πάσχουσι διὰ τὸ
25 ἀθέατοι τῶν κρειττόνων εἶναι, κόσμου λέγω καὶ τῶν ἐν
κόσμῳ μεγίστων· οὐδέποτε γὰρ ἂν τούτοις γνησίως ἐπιστήσαντες
1MANY a time, Alexander, has Philosophy seemed to me a thing truly divine and supernatural, especially when in solitude she soars to the contemplation of things universal and strives to recognize the truth that is in them, and while all others abstain from the pursuit of this truth owing to its sublimity and vastness, 5she has not shrunk from the task, nor thought herself unworthy of the fairest pursuits, but has deemed the knowledge of such things at once most natural to herself and most fitting. For seeing that it was not possible (as once the foolish Aloadae attempted) by means of the body to reach the heavenly region and, leaving the earth behind, to spy out that heavenly country, the soul by means of 10philosophy, taking the intellect as her guide, finding an easy path has traversed the intervening space and fared forth on its pilgrimage, and by intelligence comprehended things very far removed in space from one another, easily, methinks, recognizing those things which have kinship with one another, and by the divine eye of the soul apprehending things divine and interpreting them to mankind. 15This she felt, being desirous, as far as in her lay, freely to give to all men a share of her treasures. And so men who have laboriously described to us either the nature of a single region or the plan of a single city or the dimensions of a river or the scenery of a mountain, as some ere now have done—telling of Ossa or Nysa or the Corycian cave, or giving us some other limited description—such 20men one should pity for their small-mindedness in admiring ordinary things and making much of some quite insignificant spectacle. They are thus affected because they have never contemplated what is nobler—the Universe and the greatest things of the Universe; for if they had really given attention to these things, they would never marvel at anything else, but all else would appear insignificant 25and, compared to the surpassing excellence of those other things, of no account.
391b
1 ἐθαύμαζόν τι τῶν ἄλλων, ἀλλὰ πάντα αὐτοῖς τὰ
ἄλλα μικρὰ κατεφαίνετο ἂν καὶ οὐδενὸς ἄξια πρὸς τὴν
τούτων ὑπεροχήν. Λέγωμεν δὴ ἡμεῖς καί, καθ' ὅσον ἐφικτόν,
θεολογῶμεν περὶ τούτων συμπάντων, ὡς ἕκαστον ἔχει φύσεως
5 καὶ θέσεως καὶ κινήσεως. Πρέπειν δέ γε οἶμαι καὶ
σοί, ὄντι ἡγεμόνων ἀρίστῳ, τὴν τῶν μεγίστων ἱστορίαν μετιέναι,
φιλοσοφίᾳ τε μηδὲν μικρὸν ἐπινοεῖν, ἀλλὰ τοῖς τοιούτοις
δώροις δεξιοῦσθαι τοὺς ἀρίστους.
1Let us therefore treat of all these matters and, as far as possible, inquire into their divine nature, and discuss the nature and position and movement of each of them. And I think that it is but fitting that even you, who are the noblest of rulers, should pursue the inquiry 5into the greatest of all subjects and in philosophy entertain no trivial thoughts, and make the noblest among men welcome to these only of her gifts.
Chapter 2 (391b9–392b13)
Κόσμος μὲν οὖν ἐστι σύστημα ἐξ οὐρανοῦ καὶ γῆς καὶ τῶν
10 ἐν τούτοις περιεχομένων φύσεων. Λέγεται δὲ καὶ ἑτέρως κόσμος
ἡ τῶν ὅλων τάξις τε καὶ διακόσμησις, ὑπὸ θεοῦ τε
καὶ διὰ θεὸν φυλαττομένη. Ταύτης δὲ τὸ μὲν μέσον, ἀκίνητόν
τε καὶ ἑδραῖον ὄν, ἡ φερέσβιος εἴληχε γῆ, παντοδαπῶν
ζῴων ἑστία τε οὖσα καὶ μήτηρ. Τὸ δὲ ὕπερθεν αὐτῆς,
15 πᾶν τε καὶ πάντῃ πεπερατωμένον εἰς τὸ ἀνωτάτω, θεῶν οἰκητήριον,
οὐρανὸς ὠνόμασται. Πλήρης δὲ ὢν σωμάτων θείων,
ἃ δὴ καλεῖν ἄστρα εἰώθαμεν, κινούμενος κίνησιν ἀίδιον, μιᾷ
περιαγωγῇ καὶ κύκλῳ συναναχορεύει πᾶσι τούτοις ἀπαύστως
δι' αἰῶνος. Τοῦ δὲ σύμπαντος οὐρανοῦ τε καὶ κόσμου σφαιροειδοῦς
20 ὄντος καὶ κινουμένου, καθάπερ εἶπον, ἐνδελεχῶς, δύο
ἐξ ἀνάγκης ἀκίνητά ἐστι σημεῖα, καταντικρὺ ἀλλήλων, καθάπερ
τῆς ἐν τόρνῳ κυκλοφορουμένης σφαίρας, στερεὰ μένοντα
καὶ συνέχοντα τὴν σφαῖραν, περὶ ἃ ὁ πᾶς ὄγκος
The Universe then is a system made up of heaven and earth and the elements which are contained in them. But the word is also used in another sense of the ordering and arrangement of all things, 10preserved by and through God. Of this Universe the centre, which is immovable and fixed, is occupied by the life-bearing earth, the home and the mother of diverse creatures. The upper portion of the Universe has fixed bounds on every side, the highest part of it being called Heaven, the abode of the gods. Heaven is full of divine bodies, which 15we usually call stars, and moves with a continual motion in one orbit, and revolves in stately measure with all the heavenly bodies unceasingly for ever. The whole heaven and universe being spherical and moving, as I have said, continually, there must of necessity be two points which do not move, exactly opposite to one another (as in the 20revolving wheel of a turner's lathe), points which remain fixed and hold the sphere together and round which the whole universe moves. The universe therefore revolves in a circle and the points are called poles.
392a
1 καλοῦσι, διάμετρος ἔσται τοῦ κόσμου, μέσον μὲν ἔχουσα τὴν γῆν, τοὺς δὲ δύο πόλους πέρατα. Τῶν δὲ ἀκινήτων
πόλων τούτων ὁ μὲν ἀεὶ φανερός ἐστιν ὑπὲρ κορυφὴν
ὢν κατὰ τὸ βόρειον κλίμα, ἀρκτικὸς καλούμενος, ὁ δὲ ὑπὸ
γῆν ἀεὶ κατακέκρυπται, κατὰ τὸ νότιον, ἀνταρκτικὸς καλούμενος.
5 Οὐρανοῦ δὲ καὶ ἄστρων οὐσίαν μὲν αἰθέρα καλοῦμεν,
οὐχ, ὥς τινες, διὰ τὸ πυρώδη οὖσαν αἴθεσθαι, πλημμελοῦντες
περὶ τὴν πλεῖστον πυρὸς ἀπηλλαγμένην δύναμιν, ἀλλὰ διὰ
τὸ ἀεὶ θεῖν κυκλοφορουμένην, στοιχεῖον οὖσαν ἕτερον τῶν τεττάρων,
ἀκήρατόν τε καὶ θεῖον. Τῶν γε μὴν ἐμπεριεχομένων
10 ἄστρων τὰ μὲν ἀπλανῶς τῷ σύμπαντι οὐρανῷ συμπεριστρέφεται,
τὰς αὐτὰς ἔχοντα ἕδρας, ὧν μέσος ὁ ζῳοφόρος καλούμενος
κύκλος ἐγκάρσιος διὰ τῶν τροπικῶν διέζωσται, κατὰ
μέρη διῃρημένος εἰς δώδεκα ζῳδίων χώρας, τὰ δέ, πλανητὰ
ὄντα, οὔτε τοῖς προτέροις ὁμοταχῶς κινεῖσθαι πέφυκεν
15 οὔτε ἀλλήλοις, ἀλλ' ἐν ἑτέροις καὶ ἑτέροις κύκλοις, ὥστε αὐτῶν
τὸ μὲν προσγειότερον εἶναι, τὸ δὲ ἀνώτερον. Τὸ μὲν
οὖν τῶν ἀπλανῶν πλῆθος ἀνεξεύρετόν ἐστιν ἀνθρώποις, καίπερ
ἐπὶ μιᾶς κινουμένων ἐπιφανείας τῆς τοῦ σύμπαντος οὐρανοῦ· τὸ
δὲ τῶν πλανήτων, εἰς ἑπτὰ μέρη κεφαλαιούμενον, ἐν τοσούτοις
20 ἐστὶ κύκλοις ἐφεξῆς κειμένοις, ὥστε ἀεὶ τὸν ἀνωτέρω μείζω
τοῦ ὑποκάτω εἶναι, τούς τε ἑπτὰ ἐν ἀλλήλοις ἐμπεριέχεσθαι,
πάντας γε μὴν ὑπὸ τῆς τῶν ἀπλανῶν σφαίρας περιειλῆφθαι.
Συνεχῆ δὲ ἔχει ἀεὶ τὴν θέσιν ταύτῃ ὁ τοῦ Φαίνοντος
ἅμα καὶ Κρόνου καλούμενος κύκλος, ἐφεξῆς δὲ ὁ τοῦ Φαέθοντος
25 καὶ Διὸς λεγόμενος, εἶθ' ὁ Πυρόεις, Ἡρακλέους τε καὶ
Ἄρεος προσαγορευόμενος, ἑξῆς δὲ ὁ Στίλβων, ὃν ἱερὸν Ἑρμοῦ
καλοῦσιν ἔνιοι, τινὲς δὲ Ἀπόλλωνος· μεθ' ὃν ὁ τοῦ Φωσφόρου,
ὃν Ἀφροδίτης, οἱ δὲ Ἥρας προσαγορεύουσιν, εἶτα ὁ
ἡλίου, καὶ τελευταῖος ὁ τῆς σελήνης, μέχρις ἧς ὁρίζεται ὁ
30 αἰθήρ, τά τε θεῖα ἐμπεριέχων σώματα καὶ τὴν τῆς κινήσεως
τάξιν. Μετὰ δὲ τὴν αἰθέριον καὶ θείαν φύσιν, ἥντινα
τεταγμένην ἀποφαίνομεν, ἔτι δὲ ἄτρεπτον καὶ ἀνετεροίωτον
καὶ ἀπαθῆ, συνεχής ἐστιν ἡ δι' ὅλων παθητή τε καὶ τρεπτή,
καί, τὸ σύμπαν εἰπεῖν, φθαρτή τε καὶ ἐπίκηρος. Ταύτης δὲ
35 αὐτῆς πρώτη μέν ἐστιν ἡ λεπτομερὴς καὶ φλογώδης οὐσία,
1If we imagine a straight line drawn so as to join them (the axis, as it is sometimes called), it will form the diameter of the Universe, occupying the centre of the earth, with the two poles as its extremities. Of these fixed poles the one is always visible, being at the summit of the axis in the northern region of the 5sky, and is called the Arctic Pole; the other is always hidden beneath the earth to the south and is called the Antarctic Pole.
The substance of the heaven and stars we call Ether, not because it blazes, owing to its fiery nature (as some explain the word, mistaking its nature, which is very far removed from fire), but because it is in continual motion, revolving in a circle, being an element other 10than the four, indestructible and divine. Of the stars which are contained in it, those called 'fixed' revolve only with the whole heaven, always occupying the same positions. A belt is formed through their midst by the so-called Circle of the Zodiac, which passes crosswise through the tropics, being divided up into the twelve regions of the Signs of the Zodiac. Others, which are called 'planets', do 15not naturally move with the same velocity as those stars of which I have already spoken, nor with the same velocity as one another, but each in a different course, so that one will be nearer the earth, another higher in the heavens. Now the number of the fixed stars cannot be ascertained by man, although they move in one surface, which is that of the whole heaven. But the planets fall into seven 20divisions in seven successive circles, so situated that the higher is always greater than the lower, and the seven circles are successively encompassed by one another and are all surrounded by the sphere containing the fixed stars. The position nearest to this sphere is occupied by the so-called circle of the 'Shining star', or Cronos; next is that of the 'Beaming star', which also bears the name of Zeus; 25then follows the circle of the 'Fiery star', called by the names both of Heracles and of Ares; next comes the 'Glistening star', which some call sacred to Hermes, others sacred to Apollo; after that is the circle of the 'Light-bearing star', which some call the star of Aphrodite, others the star of Hera; then comes the circle of the Sun, and lastly that of the Moon, which borders on the Earth. The 30ether encompasses the heavenly bodies and the area over which they are ordained to move.
After the Ethereal and Divine Element, which we have shown to be governed by fixed laws and to be, moreover, free from disturbance, change, and external influence, there follows immediately an element which is subject throughout to external influence and disturbance and is, in a word, corruptible and perishable.
The substance of the heaven and stars we call Ether, not because it blazes, owing to its fiery nature (as some explain the word, mistaking its nature, which is very far removed from fire), but because it is in continual motion, revolving in a circle, being an element other 10than the four, indestructible and divine. Of the stars which are contained in it, those called 'fixed' revolve only with the whole heaven, always occupying the same positions. A belt is formed through their midst by the so-called Circle of the Zodiac, which passes crosswise through the tropics, being divided up into the twelve regions of the Signs of the Zodiac. Others, which are called 'planets', do 15not naturally move with the same velocity as those stars of which I have already spoken, nor with the same velocity as one another, but each in a different course, so that one will be nearer the earth, another higher in the heavens. Now the number of the fixed stars cannot be ascertained by man, although they move in one surface, which is that of the whole heaven. But the planets fall into seven 20divisions in seven successive circles, so situated that the higher is always greater than the lower, and the seven circles are successively encompassed by one another and are all surrounded by the sphere containing the fixed stars. The position nearest to this sphere is occupied by the so-called circle of the 'Shining star', or Cronos; next is that of the 'Beaming star', which also bears the name of Zeus; 25then follows the circle of the 'Fiery star', called by the names both of Heracles and of Ares; next comes the 'Glistening star', which some call sacred to Hermes, others sacred to Apollo; after that is the circle of the 'Light-bearing star', which some call the star of Aphrodite, others the star of Hera; then comes the circle of the Sun, and lastly that of the Moon, which borders on the Earth. The 30ether encompasses the heavenly bodies and the area over which they are ordained to move.
After the Ethereal and Divine Element, which we have shown to be governed by fixed laws and to be, moreover, free from disturbance, change, and external influence, there follows immediately an element which is subject throughout to external influence and disturbance and is, in a word, corruptible and perishable.
392b
1 ὑπὸ τῆς αἰθερίου πυρουμένη διὰ τὸ μέγεθος αὐτῆς καὶ
τὴν ὀξύτητα τῆς κινήσεως· ἐν δὲ τῇ πυρώδει καὶ ἀτάκτῳ
λεγομένῃ τά τε σέλα διᾴττει καὶ φλόγες ἀκοντίζονται
καὶ δοκίδες τε καὶ βόθυνοι καὶ κομῆται λεγόμενοι στηρίζονται
5 καὶ σβέννυνται πολλάκις. Ἑξῆς δὲ ταύτης ὁ ἀὴρ
ὑποκέχυται, ζοφώδης ὢν καὶ παγετώδης τὴν φύσιν· ὑπὸ
δὲ ἐκείνης λαμπόμενος ἅμα καὶ διακαιόμενος λαμπρός
τε γίνεται καὶ ἀλεεινός. Ἐν δὲ τούτῳ, τῆς παθητῆς ὄντι
καὶ αὐτῷ δυνάμεως καὶ παντοδαπῶς ἀλλοιουμένῳ, νέφη τε
10 συνίσταται καὶ ὄμβροι καταράσσουσι, χιόνες τε καὶ πάχναι
καὶ χάλαζαι πνοαί τε ἀνέμων καὶ τυφώνων, ἔτι τε βρονταὶ
καὶ ἀστραπαὶ καὶ πτώσεις κεραυνῶν μυρίων τε γνόφων
συμπληγάδες.
1In the outer portion of this occurs the substance which is made up of small particles and is fiery, being kindled by the ethereal element owing to its superior size and the rapidity of its movement. In this so-called Fiery and Disordered Element flashes shoot and 5fires dart, and so-called 'beams' and 'pits' and comets have their fixed position and often become extinguished.
Next beneath this spreads the air, which is in its nature murky and cold as ice, but becomes illuminated and set on fire by motion, and thus grows brighter and warm. And since the air too admits of influence and 10undergoes every kind of change, clouds form in it, rain-storms beat down, and snow, hoar-frost, hail with blasts of winds and of hurricanes, and thunder too and lightning and falling bolts, and the crashing together of countless opaque bodies.
Next beneath this spreads the air, which is in its nature murky and cold as ice, but becomes illuminated and set on fire by motion, and thus grows brighter and warm. And since the air too admits of influence and 10undergoes every kind of change, clouds form in it, rain-storms beat down, and snow, hoar-frost, hail with blasts of winds and of hurricanes, and thunder too and lightning and falling bolts, and the crashing together of countless opaque bodies.
Chapter 3 (392b14–394a6)
Ἑξῆς δὲ τῆς ἀερίου φύσεως γῆ καὶ θάλασσα ἐρήρεισται,
15 φυτοῖς βρύουσα καὶ ζῴοις πηγαῖς τε καὶ ποταμοῖς,
τοῖς μὲν ἐν γῇ ἀναλισκομένοις, τοῖς δὲ ἀνερευγομένοις εἰς
θάλασσαν. Πεποίκιλται δὲ καὶ χλόαις μυρίαις ὄρεσι τε
ὑψήλοις καὶ βαθυξύλοις δρυμοῖς καὶ πόλεσιν, ἃς τὸ σοφὸν
ζῷον, ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ἱδρύσατο, νήσοις τε ἐναλίοις καὶ ἠπείροις.
20 Τὴν μὲν οὖν οἰκουμένην ὁ πολὺς λόγος εἴς τε νήσους καὶ
ἠπείρους διεῖλεν, ἀγνοῶν ὅτι καὶ ἡ σύμπασα μία νῆσός ἐστιν,
ὑπὸ τῆς Ἀτλαντικῆς καλουμένης θαλάσσης περιρρεομένη.
Πολλὰς δὲ καὶ ἄλλας εἰκὸς τῆσδε ἀντιπόρθμους ἄπωθεν κεῖσθαι,
τὰς μὲν μείζους αὐτῆς, τὰς δὲ ἐλάττους, ἡμῖν δὲ πάσας
25 πλὴν τῆσδε ἀοράτους· ὅπερ γὰρ αἱ παρ' ἡμῖν νῆσοι πρὸς
ταυτὶ τὰ πελάγη πεπόνθασι, τοῦτο ἥδε ἡ οἰκουμένη πρὸς
τὴν Ἀτλαντικὴν θάλασσαν πολλαί τε ἕτεραι πρὸς σύμπασαν
τὴν θάλασσαν· καὶ γὰρ αὗται μεγάλαι τινές εἰσι νῆσοι
μεγάλοις περικλυζόμεναι πελάγεσιν. Ἡ δὲ σύμπασα
30 τοῦ ὑγροῦ φύσις ἐπιπολάζουσα, κατά τινας τῆς γῆς σπίλους
τὰς καλουμένας ἀναπεφαγκυῖα οἰκουμένας, ἑξῆς ἂν εἴη τῆς
ἀερίου μάλιστα φύσεως. Μετὰ δὲ ταύτην ἐν τοῖς βυθοῖς κατὰ
τὸ μεσαίτατον τοῦ κόσμου συνερηρεισμένη γῆ πᾶσα καὶ πεπιεσμένη
συνέστηκεν, ἀκίνητος καὶ ἀσάλευτος· καὶ τοῦτ' ἔστι
35 τοῦ κόσμου τὸ πᾶν ὃ καλοῦμεν κάτω. Πέντε δὴ στοιχεῖα ταῦτα
Next to the aerial element the earth and sea have their fixed position, teeming with plant 15and animal life, and fountains and rivers, either winding over the earth or discharging their waters into the sea. The earth is diversified by countless kinds of verdure and lofty mountains and densely wooded copses and cities, which that intelligent animal man has founded, and islands set in the sea and continents. Now the 20usual account divides the inhabited world into islands and continents, ignoring the fact that the whole of it forms a single island round which the sea that is called Atlantic flows. But, it is probable that there are many other continents separated from ours by a sea that we must cross to reach them, some larger and others smaller 25than it, but all, save our own, invisible to us. For as our islands are in relation to our seas, so is the inhabited world in relation to the Atlantic, and so are many other continents in relation to the whole sea; for they are as it were immense islands surrounded by immense seas. The general element of moisture, covering 30the earth's surface and allowing the so-called inhabited countries to rise in patches as it were of dry land, may be said to come immediately after the aerial element. Next to it the whole earth has been formed, firmly fixed in the lowest position at the midmost centre of the Universe, closely compacted, immovable and unshakable.
393a
1 ἐν πέντε χώραις σφαιρικῶς ἐγκείμενα, περιεχομένης ἀεὶ τῆς
ἐλάττονος τῇ μείζονι—λέγω δὲ γῆς μὲν ἐν ὕδατι, ὕδατος
δὲ ἐν ἀέρι, ἀέρος δὲ ἐν πυρί, πυρὸς δὲ ἐν αἰθέρι—τὸν ὅλον
κόσμον συνεστήσατο, καὶ τὸ μὲν ἄνω πᾶν θεῶν ἀπέδειξεν οἰκητήριον,
5 τὸ κάτω δὲ ἐφημέρων ζῴων. Αὐτοῦ γε μὴν τούτου
τὸ μὲν ὑγρόν ἐστιν, ὃ καλεῖν ποταμοὺς καὶ νάματα καὶ θαλάσσας
εἰθίσμεθα, τὸ δὲ ξηρὸν, ὃ γῆν τε καὶ ἠπείρους καὶ
νήσους ὀνομάζομεν.
Τῶν δὲ νήσων αἱ μέν εἰσι μεγάλαι, καθάπερ ἡ σύμπασα
10 ἥδε οἰκουμένη λέλεκται πολλαί τε ἕτεραι μεγάλοις
περιρρεόμεναι πελάγεσιν, αἱ δὲ ἐλάττους, φανεραί τε
ἡμῖν καὶ ἐντὸς οὖσαι. Καὶ τούτων αἱ μὲν ἀξιόλογοι, Σικελία
καὶ Σαρδὼ καὶ Κύρνος Κρήτη τε καὶ Εὔβοια καὶ Κύπρος
καὶ Λέσβος, αἱ δὲ ὑποδεέστεραι, ὧν αἱ μὲν Σποράδες, αἱ
15 δὲ Κυκλάδες, αἱ δὲ ἄλλως ὀνομάζονται.
Πέλαγος δὲ τὸ μὲν ἔξω τῆς οἰκουμένης Ἀτλαντικόν τε
καὶ Ὠκεανὸς καλεῖται, περιρρέων ἡμᾶς. Ἐντὸς δὲ πρὸς δύσεις
στενοπόρῳ διανεωγὼς στόματι, κατὰ τὰς Ἡρακλείους λεγομένας
στήλας τὸν εἴσρουν εἰς τὴν ἔσω θάλασσαν ὡς ἂν εἰς
20 λιμένα ποιεῖται, κατὰ μικρὸν δὲ ἐπιπλατυνόμενος ἀναχεῖται,
μεγάλους περιλαμβάνων κόλπους ἀλλήλοις συναφεῖς,
πῇ μὲν κατὰ στενοπόρους αὐχένας ἀνεστομωμένος, πῇ δὲ πάλιν
πλατυνόμενος. Πρῶτον μὲν οὖν λέγεται ἐγκεκολπῶσθαι
ἐν δεξιᾷ εἰσπλέοντι τὰς Ἡρακλείους στήλας, διχῶς, εἰς τὰς
25 καλουμένας Σύρτεις, ὧν τὴν μὲν Μεγάλην, τὴν δὲ Μικρὰν, καλοῦσιν·
ἐπὶ θάτερα δὲ οὐκέτι ὁμοίως ἀποκολπούμενος τρία ποιεῖ
πελάγη, τό τε Σαρδόνιον καὶ τὸ Γαλατικὸν λεγόμενον καὶ
Ἀδρίαν, ἑξῆς δὲ τούτων ἐγκάρσιον τὸ Σικελικόν, μετὰ δὲ
τοῦτο τὸ Κρητικόν, συνεχὲς δὲ αὐτοῦ, τῇ μὲν τὸ Αἰγύπτιόν τε
30 καὶ Παμφύλιον καὶ Σύριον, τῇ δὲ τὸ Αἰγαῖόν τε καὶ Μυρτῷον.
Ἀντιπαρήκει δὲ τοῖς εἰρημένοις πολυμερέστατος ὢν ὁ
Πόντος, οὗ τὸ μὲν μυχαίτατον Μαιῶτις καλεῖται, τὸ δὲ ἔξω
1This forms the whole of what we call the lower portion of the Universe.
Thus then five elements, situated in spheres in five regions, the less being in each case surrounded by the greater—namely, earth surrounded by water, water by air, air by fire, and fire by ether—make 5up the whole Universe. All the upper portion represents the dwelling of the gods, the lower the abode of mortal creatures. Of the latter, part is moist, to which we are accustomed to give the names of rivers, springs, and seas; while part is dry, which we call land and continents and islands.
Of the islands, some are large, like the whole of 10what we call the inhabited world (and there are many other such surrounded by mighty seas); other islands are smaller, which are visible to us and in our own sea. Of these some are of considerable size, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, Euboea, Cyprus, and Lesbos; others are less extensive, such as the Sporades and Cyclades and others bearing 15various names.
Again, the sea which lies outside the inhabited world is called the Atlantic or Ocean, flowing round us. Opening in a narrow passage towards the West, at the so-called Pillars of Heracles, the Ocean forms a current into the inner sea, as into a harbour; then gradually expanding it spreads out, embracing great bays adjoining 20one another, opening into other seas by narrow straits and then widening out again. First, then, on the right as one sails in through the Pillars of Heracles it is said to form two bays, the so-called Syrtes, the Greater and the Lesser as they are called; on the other side it does not make such bays, but forms three seas, the Sardinian, the 25Gallic, and the Adriatic. Next to these comes the Sicilian sea, lying crosswise, and after it the Cretan. Continuing it come the Egyptian, Pamphylian, and Syrian seas in one direction, and the Aegean and Myrtoan seas in the other. Over against the seas already mentioned extends the Pontus, which is made up of several parts; the innermost 30portion is called Maeotis, while the outer portion in the direction of the Hellespont is connected by a strait with the so-called Propontis.
Thus then five elements, situated in spheres in five regions, the less being in each case surrounded by the greater—namely, earth surrounded by water, water by air, air by fire, and fire by ether—make 5up the whole Universe. All the upper portion represents the dwelling of the gods, the lower the abode of mortal creatures. Of the latter, part is moist, to which we are accustomed to give the names of rivers, springs, and seas; while part is dry, which we call land and continents and islands.
Of the islands, some are large, like the whole of 10what we call the inhabited world (and there are many other such surrounded by mighty seas); other islands are smaller, which are visible to us and in our own sea. Of these some are of considerable size, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, Euboea, Cyprus, and Lesbos; others are less extensive, such as the Sporades and Cyclades and others bearing 15various names.
Again, the sea which lies outside the inhabited world is called the Atlantic or Ocean, flowing round us. Opening in a narrow passage towards the West, at the so-called Pillars of Heracles, the Ocean forms a current into the inner sea, as into a harbour; then gradually expanding it spreads out, embracing great bays adjoining 20one another, opening into other seas by narrow straits and then widening out again. First, then, on the right as one sails in through the Pillars of Heracles it is said to form two bays, the so-called Syrtes, the Greater and the Lesser as they are called; on the other side it does not make such bays, but forms three seas, the Sardinian, the 25Gallic, and the Adriatic. Next to these comes the Sicilian sea, lying crosswise, and after it the Cretan. Continuing it come the Egyptian, Pamphylian, and Syrian seas in one direction, and the Aegean and Myrtoan seas in the other. Over against the seas already mentioned extends the Pontus, which is made up of several parts; the innermost 30portion is called Maeotis, while the outer portion in the direction of the Hellespont is connected by a strait with the so-called Propontis.
393b
1 πρὸς τὸν Ἑλλήσποντον συνανεστόμωται τῇ καλουμένῃ Προποντίδι.
Πρός γε μὴν ταῖς ἀνασχέσεσι τοῦ ἡλίου πάλιν εἰςρέων
ὁ Ὠκεανός, τὸν Ἰνδικόν τε καὶ Περσικὸν διανοίξας κόλπον,
ἀναφαίνει συνεχῆ τὴν Ἐρυθρὰν θάλασσαν διειληφώς.
5 Ἐπὶ θάτερον δὲ κέρας κατὰ στενόν τε καὶ ἐπιμήκη διήκων
αὐχένα, πάλιν ἀνευρύνεται, τὴν Ὑρκανίαν τε καὶ Κασπίαν
ὁρίζων· τὸ δὲ ὑπὲρ ταύτην βαθὺν ἔχει τὸν ὑπὲρ τὴν Μαιῶτιν
λίμνην τόπον. Εἶτα κατ' ὀλίγον ὑπὲρ τοὺς Σκύθας τε καὶ
Κελτικὴν σφίγγει τὴν οἰκουμένην πρός τε τὸν Γαλατικὸν
10 κόλπον καὶ τὰς προειρημένας Ἡρακλείους στήλας, ὧν ἔξω
περιρρέει τὴν γῆν ὁ Ὠκεανός. Ἐν τούτῳ γε μὴν νῆσοι μέγισται
τυγχάνουσιν οὖσαι δύο, Βρεττανικαὶ λεγόμεναι, Ἀλβίων
καὶ Ἰέρνη, τῶν προϊστορημένων μείζους, ὑπὲρ τοὺς Κελτοὺς
κείμεναι. Τούτων δὲ οὐκ ἐλάττους ἥ τε Ταπροβάνη πέραν
15 Ἰνδῶν, λοξὴ πρὸς τὴν οἰκουμένην, καὶ ἡ † Φεβὸλ καλουμένη,
κατὰ τὸν Ἀραβικὸν κειμένη κόλπον. Οὐκ ὀλίγαι δὲ ἄλλαι μικραὶ
περὶ τὰς Βρεττανικὰς καὶ τὴν Ἰβηρίαν κύκλῳ περιεστεφάνωνται
τὴν οἰκουμένην ταύτην, ἣν δὴ νῆσον εἰρήκαμεν· ἧς πλάτος
μέν ἐστι κατὰ τὸ βαθύτατον τῆς ἠπείρου βραχὺ ἀποδέον
20 τετρακισμυρίων σταδίων, ὥς φασιν οἱ εὖ γεωγραφήσαντες,
μῆκος δὲ περὶ ἑπτακισμυρίους μάλιστα. Διαιρεῖται δὲ εἴς τε
Εὐρώπην καὶ Ἀσίαν καὶ Λιβύην.
Εὐρώπη μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἧς ὅροι κύκλῳ στῆλαί τε Ἡρακλέους
καὶ μυχοὶ Πόντου θάλαττά τε Ὑρκανία, καθ' ἣν
25 στενότατος ἰσθμὸς εἰς τὸν Πόντον διήκει· τινὲς δὲ ἀντὶ τοῦ
ἰσθμοῦ Τάναϊν ποταμὸν εἰρήκασιν. Ἀσία δέ ἐστι τὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ
εἰρημένου ἰσθμοῦ τοῦ τε Πόντου καὶ τῆς Ὑρκανίας θαλάσσης
μέχρι θατέρου ἰσθμοῦ, ὃς μεταξὺ κεῖται τοῦ τε Ἀραβικοῦ
κόλπου καὶ τῆς ἔσω θαλάσσης, περιεχόμενος ὑπό τε ταύτης
30 καὶ τοῦ πέριξ Ὠκεανοῦ· τινὲς δὲ ἀπὸ Τανάϊδος μέχρι
Νείλου στομάτων τὸν τῆς Ἀσίας τίθενται ὅρον. Λιβύη δὲ τὸ
ἀπὸ τοῦ Ἀραβικοῦ ἰσθμοῦ ἕως Ἡρακλέους στηλῶν. Οἱ δὲ ἀπὸ
1Towards the East the Ocean again flows in and opens up the Indian and Persian Gulfs, and displays the Erythraean sea continuous with these, embracing all three. With its other branch it passes through a long narrow strait and then expands again bounding 5the Hyrcanian and Caspian country. Beyond this it occupies the large tract beyond the Lake of Maeotis; then beyond the Scythians and the land of the Celts it gradually confines the width of the habitable world, as it approaches the Gallic Gulf and the Pillars of Heracles already mentioned, outside which the 10Ocean flows round the earth. In this sea are situated two very large islands, the so-called British Isles, Albion and Ierne, which are greater than any which we have yet mentioned and lie beyond the land of the Celts. (The island of Taprobane opposite India, situated at an angle to the inhabited world, is quite 15as large as the British Isles, as also is the island called Phebol, which lies over against the Arabian Gulf.) There is a large number of small islands round the British Isles and Iberia, forming a belt round the inhabited world, which as we have already said is itself an island. The width of the inhabited world 20at the greatest extent of its mainland is rather less than 40,000 stades, so the best geographers say, and its length about 70,000 stades. It is divided into Europe, Asia, and Libya.
Europe is the tract bounded in a circle by the Pillars of Heracles, the inner recesses of the Pontus, and the Hyrcanian sea, where 25a very narrow isthmus stretches to the Pontus. Some have held that the river Tanais carries on the boundary from this isthmus. Asia extends from the said isthmus and the Pontus and the Hyrcanian sea to the other isthmus which lies between the Arabian Gulf and the inner sea, being surrounded by the inner sea and 30the Ocean which flows round the world. Some, however, define the bounds of Asia as from the Tanais to the mouths of the Nile.
Europe is the tract bounded in a circle by the Pillars of Heracles, the inner recesses of the Pontus, and the Hyrcanian sea, where 25a very narrow isthmus stretches to the Pontus. Some have held that the river Tanais carries on the boundary from this isthmus. Asia extends from the said isthmus and the Pontus and the Hyrcanian sea to the other isthmus which lies between the Arabian Gulf and the inner sea, being surrounded by the inner sea and 30the Ocean which flows round the world. Some, however, define the bounds of Asia as from the Tanais to the mouths of the Nile.
394a
1 τοῦ Νείλου φασὶν ἕως ἐκείνων. Τὴν δὲ Αἴγυπτον, ὑπὸ τῶν τοῦ
Νείλου στομάτων περιρρεομένην, οἱ μὲν τῇ Ἀσίᾳ, οἱ δὲ τῇ Λιβύῃ
προσάπτουσι, καὶ τὰς νήσους οἱ μὲν ἐξαιρέτους ποιοῦσιν, οἱ
δὲ προσνέμουσι ταῖς γείτοσιν ἀεὶ μοίραις. Γῆς μὲν δὴ καὶ
5 θαλάττης φύσιν καὶ θέσιν, ἥντινα καλεῖν εἰώθαμεν οἰκουμένην,
τοιάνδε τινὰ ἱστορήκαμεν.
1Libya extends from the Arabian isthmus to the Pillars of Heracles; though some describe it as stretching from the Nile to the Pillars; Egypt, which is surrounded by the mouths of the Nile, is given by some to Asia, by others to Libya; some exclude the islands from both continents, 5others attach them to their nearest neighbour.
Such is our account of the nature of land and sea and their position—the inhabited world as we call it.
Such is our account of the nature of land and sea and their position—the inhabited world as we call it.
Chapter 4 (394a7–396a32)
Περὶ δὲ τῶν ἀξιολογωτάτων ἐν αὐτῇ καὶ περὶ αὐτὴν
παθῶν νῦν λέγωμεν, αὐτὰ τὰ ἀναγκαῖα κεφαλαιούμενοι.
Δύο γὰρ δή τινες ἀπ' αὐτῆς ἀναθυμιάσεις ἀναφέρονται συνεχῶς
10 εἰς τὸν ὑπὲρ ἡμᾶς ἀέρα, λεπτομερεῖς καὶ ἀόρατοι
παντάπασιν, εἰ [τι] μὴ κατὰ τὰς ἑῴας ἔστιν ὅτε ἀπὸ ποταμῶν
τε καὶ ναμάτων ἀναφερόμεναι θεωροῦνται. Τούτων δὲ
ἡ μέν ἐστι ξηρὰ καὶ καπνώδης, ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς ἀπορρέουσα, ἡ
δὲ νοτερὰ καὶ ἀτμώδης, ἀπὸ τῆς ὑγρᾶς ἀναθυμιωμένη φύσεως.
15 Γίνονται δὲ ἀπὸ μὲν ταύτης ὁμίχλαι καὶ δρόσοι καὶ
πάγων ἰδέαι νέφη τε καὶ ὄμβροι καὶ χιόνες καὶ χάλαζαι,
ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς ξηρᾶς ἄνεμοί τε καὶ πνευμάτων διαφοραὶ
βρονταί τε καὶ ἀστραπαὶ καὶ πρηστῆρες καὶ κεραυνοὶ καὶ
τὰ ἄλλα ἃ δὴ τούτοις ἐστὶ σύμφυλα. Ἔστι δὲ ὁμίχλη μὲν ἀτμώδης
20 ἀναθυμίασις ἄγονος ὕδατος, ἀέρος μὲν παχυτέρα,
νέφους δὲ ἀραιοτέρα· γίνεται δὲ ἤτοι ἐξ ἀρχῆς νέφους ἢ ἐξ
ὑπολείμματος. Ἀντίπαλος δὲ αὐτῇ λέγεταί τε καὶ ἔστιν αἰθρία,
οὐδὲν ἄλλο οὖσα πλὴν ἀὴρ ἀνέφελος καὶ ἀνόμιχλος. Δρόσος
δέ ἐστιν ὑγρὸν ἐξ αἰθρίας κατὰ σύστασιν λεπτὴν φερόμενον,
25 κρύσταλλος δὲ ἀθρόον ὕδωρ ἐξ αἰθρίας πεπηγός, πάχνη δὲ
δρόσος πεπηγυῖα, δροσοπάχνη δὲ ἡμιπαγὴς δρόσος. Νέφος
δέ ἐστι πάχος ἀτμῶδες συνεστραμμένον, γόνιμον ὕδατος· ὄμβρος
δὲ γίνεται μὲν κατ' ἐκπιεσμὸν νέφους εὖ μάλα πεπαχυσμένου,
διαφορὰς δὲ ἴσχει τοσάσδε ὅσας καὶ ἡ τοῦ νέφους
30 θλῖψις· ἠπία μὲν γὰρ οὖσα μαλακὰς ψεκάδας διασπείρει,
σφοδρὰ δὲ ἁδροτέρας· καὶ τοῦτο καλοῦμεν ὑετὸν, ὄμβρου
μείζω καὶ συνεχῆ συστρέμματα ἐπὶ γῆς φερόμενον. Χιὼν
δὲ γίνεται κατὰ νεφῶν πεπυκνωμένων ἀπόθραυσιν πρὸ τῆς
εἰς ὕδωρ μεταβολῆς ἀνακοπέντων· ἐργάζεται δὲ ἡ μὲν κοπὴ
35 τὸ ἀφρῶδες καὶ ἔκλευκον, ἡ δὲ σύμπηξις τοῦ ἐνόντος
ὑγροῦ τὴν ψυχρότητα οὔπω χυθέντος οὐδὲ ἠραιωμένου. Σφοδρὰ
Let us now deal with the most remarkable conditions which are produced in and around the earth, summarizing them in the barest outline. There are two kinds of exhalation which rise continually from the earth 10into the air above us, namely, those composed of small particles and entirely invisible, except when they occur in the east, and those which rise from rivers and streams and are visible. Of these the former kind being given off from the earth is dry and resembles smoke, while the latter being exhaled from the element of moisture is damp and vaporous. 15From the latter are produced mist and dew and the various forms of frost, clouds and rain and snow and hail; while from the dry exhalation come the winds and the different kinds of breezes, and thunder and lightning, and hurricanes and thunderbolts, and all other cognate phenomena. Mist is a vaporous exhalation which does not produce water, denser than air 20but less dense than cloud; it arises either from the first beginnings of a cloud or else from the remnant of a cloud. The contrary of this is what is called a clear sky, being simply air free from cloud and mist. Dew is moisture minute in composition falling from a clear sky; ice is water congealed in a condensed form from a clear sky; hoar-frost is 25congealed dew, and 'dew-frost' is dew which is half congealed. Cloud is a vaporous mass, concentrated and producing water. Rain is produced from the compression of a closely condensed cloud, varying according to the pressure exerted on the cloud; when the pressure is slight it scatters gentle drops; when it is great it produces a more violent fall, and we 30call this a shower, being heavier than ordinary rain, and forming continuous masses of water falling over earth. Snow is produced by the breaking up of condensed clouds, the cleavage taking place before the change into water; it is the process of cleavage which causes its resemblance to foam and its intense whiteness, while the cause of its coldness is 35the congelation of the moisture in it before it is dispersed or rarefied.
394b
1 δὲ αὕτη καὶ ἀθρόα καταφερομένη νιφετὸς ὠνόμασται. Χάλαζα
δὲ γίνεται νιφετοῦ συστραφέντος καὶ βρῖθος ἐκ πιλήματος
εἰς καταφορὰν ταχυτέραν λαβόντος· παρὰ δὲ τὰ
μεγέθη τῶν ἀπορρηγνυμένων θραυσμάτων οἵ τε ὄγκοι μείζους
5 αἵ τε φοραὶ γίνονται βιαιότεραι. Ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἐκ τῆς ὑγρᾶς
ἀναθυμιάσεως πέφυκε συμπίπτειν.
Ἐκ δὲ τῆς ξηρᾶς ὑπὸ ψύχους μὲν ὠσθείσης ὥστε ῥεῖν
ἄνεμος ἐγένετο· οὐδὲν γάρ ἐστιν οὗτος πλὴν ἀὴρ πολὺς ῥέων
καὶ ἀθρόος· ὅστις ἅμα καὶ πνεῦμα λέγεται. Λέγεται δὲ καὶ
10 ἑτέρως πνεῦμα ἥ τε ἐν φυτοῖς καὶ ζῴοις καὶ διὰ πάντων
διήκουσα ἔμψυχός τε καὶ γόνιμος οὐσία, περὶ ἧς νῦν λέγειν
οὐκ ἀναγκαῖον. Τὰ δὲ ἐν ἀέρι πνέοντα πνεύματα καλοῦμεν
ἀνέμους, αὔρας δὲ τὰς ἐξ ὑγροῦ φερομένας ἐκπνοάς. Τῶν δὲ
ἀνέμων οἱ μὲν ἐκ νενοτισμένης γῆς πνέοντες ἀπόγειοι λέγονται,
15 οἱ δὲ ἐκ κόλπων διεξᾴττοντες ἐγκολπίαι· τούτοις δὲ
ἀνάλογόν τι ἔχουσιν οἱ ἐκ ποταμῶν καὶ λιμνῶν. Οἱ δὲ κατὰ
ῥῆξιν νέφους γινόμενοι καὶ ἀνάλυσιν τοῦ πάχους εἰς ἑαυτοὺς
ποιούμενοι ἐκνεφίαι καλοῦνται· μεθ' ὕδατος δὲ ἀθρόον
ῥαγέντες ἐξυδρίαι λέγονται. Καὶ οἱ μὲν ἀπὸ ἀνατολῆς συνεχεῖς
20 εὖροι κέκληνται, βορέαι δὲ οἱ ἀπὸ ἄρκτου, ζέφυροι
δὲ οἱ ἀπὸ δύσεως, νότοι δὲ οἱ ἀπὸ μεσημβρίας. Τῶν γε
μὴν εὔρων καικίας μὲν λέγεται ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ περὶ τὰς θερινὰς
ἀνατολὰς τόπου πνέων ἄνεμος, ἀπηλιώτης δὲ ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ περὶ
τὰς ἰσημερινάς, εὖρος δὲ ὁ ἀπὸ τοῦ περὶ τὰς χειμερινάς.
25 Καὶ τῶν ἐναντίων ζεφύρων ἀργέστης μὲν ὁ ἀπὸ τῆς θερινῆς
δύσεως, ὅν τινες καλοῦσιν ὀλυμπίαν, οἱ δὲ ἰάπυγα· ζέφυρος
δὲ ὁ ἀπὸ τῆς ἰσημερινῆς, λὶψ δὲ ὁ ἀπὸ τῆς χειμερινῆς.
Καὶ τῶν βορεῶν ἰδίως ὁ μὲν ἑξῆς τῷ καικίᾳ καλεῖται
βορέας, ἀπαρκτίας δὲ ὁ ἐφεξῆς ἀπὸ τοῦ πόλου κατὰ τὸ μεσημβρινὸν
30 πνέων, θρασκίας δὲ ὁ ἑξῆς πνέων τῷ ἀργέστῃ, ὃν
ἔνιοι κιρκίαν καλοῦσιν. Καὶ τῶν νότων ὁ μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἀφανοῦς
πόλου φερόμενος ἀντίπαλος τῷ ἀπαρκτίᾳ καλεῖται νότος,
εὐρόνοτος δὲ ὁ μεταξὺ νότου καὶ εὔρου· τὸν δὲ ἐπὶ θάτερα
μεταξὺ λιβὸς καὶ νότου οἱ μὲν λιβόνοτον, οἱ δὲ λιβοφοίνικα,
35 καλοῦσιν. Τῶν δὲ ἀνέμων οἱ μέν εἰσιν εὐθύπνοοι, ὁπόσοι διεκπνέουσι
πρόσω κατ' εὐθεῖαν, οἱ δὲ ἀνακαμψίπνοοι, καθάπερ
1When snow is violent and falls heavily we call it a blizzard. Hail is produced when snow becomes densified and acquires impetus for a swifter fall from its close mass; the weight becomes greater and the fall more violent in proportion to the size of the broken fragments of cloud. 5Such then are the phenomena which occur as the result of moist exhalation.
From dry exhalation, impelled into motion by cold, is produced wind; for wind is merely a quantity of air set in motion in a mass. Wind is also called breath, a word used in another sense of the vital and generative substance which is found in plants and living creatures, 10and permeates all things; but with this we need not deal here. The Breath which breathes in the air we call wind, while to the expirations from moisture we give the name of breezes. The winds which blow from moist land we call 'land-winds', those which spring up from gulfs we call 'gulf-winds'; somewhat similar to these are those which blow 15from rivers and lakes. Winds which are produced by the bursting of a cloud causing an expansion of its density in their own direction, are called 'cloud-winds'. Those which are accompanied by a mass of water breaking forth are called 'rain-winds'.
The winds which blow continuously from the rising sun are called Euri; those from the north, Boreae; 20those from the setting sun, Zephyri; those from the south, Noti. Of the east winds, that which blows from the region of the summer sunrise is called Caecias; that which blows from the region of the equinoctial sunrise is known as Apeliotes; while the name of Eurus is given to the wind which blows from the quarter of the winter sunrise. Of the west 25winds, on the other hand, that which blows from the summer setting is Argestes, though some call it Olympias, others Iapyx; that which blows from the equinoctial setting is Zephyrus, and that which blows from the winter setting is Lips. Of the north winds (Boreae) that which is next to Caecias is called Boreas in the specific sense of the word. 30Aparctias is next to it, and blows in a southerly direction from the pole. Thracias is the wind which blows next to Argestes; by some it is called Circias. Of the south winds, that which comes from the invisible pole and immediately faces Aparctias is called Notus; that between Notus and Eurus is called Euronotus. The wind on the other side 35between Lips and Notus is called by some Libonotus, by others Libophoenix.
From dry exhalation, impelled into motion by cold, is produced wind; for wind is merely a quantity of air set in motion in a mass. Wind is also called breath, a word used in another sense of the vital and generative substance which is found in plants and living creatures, 10and permeates all things; but with this we need not deal here. The Breath which breathes in the air we call wind, while to the expirations from moisture we give the name of breezes. The winds which blow from moist land we call 'land-winds', those which spring up from gulfs we call 'gulf-winds'; somewhat similar to these are those which blow 15from rivers and lakes. Winds which are produced by the bursting of a cloud causing an expansion of its density in their own direction, are called 'cloud-winds'. Those which are accompanied by a mass of water breaking forth are called 'rain-winds'.
The winds which blow continuously from the rising sun are called Euri; those from the north, Boreae; 20those from the setting sun, Zephyri; those from the south, Noti. Of the east winds, that which blows from the region of the summer sunrise is called Caecias; that which blows from the region of the equinoctial sunrise is known as Apeliotes; while the name of Eurus is given to the wind which blows from the quarter of the winter sunrise. Of the west 25winds, on the other hand, that which blows from the summer setting is Argestes, though some call it Olympias, others Iapyx; that which blows from the equinoctial setting is Zephyrus, and that which blows from the winter setting is Lips. Of the north winds (Boreae) that which is next to Caecias is called Boreas in the specific sense of the word. 30Aparctias is next to it, and blows in a southerly direction from the pole. Thracias is the wind which blows next to Argestes; by some it is called Circias. Of the south winds, that which comes from the invisible pole and immediately faces Aparctias is called Notus; that between Notus and Eurus is called Euronotus. The wind on the other side 35between Lips and Notus is called by some Libonotus, by others Libophoenix.
395a
1 ὁ καικίας λεγόμενος, καὶ οἱ μὲν χειμῶνος, ὥσπερ οἱ νότοι,
δυναστεύοντες, οἱ δὲ θέρους, ὡς οἱ ἐτησίαι λεγόμενοι, μῖξιν
ἔχοντες τῶν τε ἀπὸ τῆς ἄρκτου φερομένων καὶ ζεφύρων· οἱ
δὲ ὀρνιθίαι καλούμενοι, ἐαρινοί τινες ὄντες ἄνεμοι, βορέαι εἰσὶ
5 τῷ γένει. Τῶν γε μὴν βιαίων πνευμάτων καταιγὶς μέν ἐστι
πνεῦμα ἄνωθεν τύπτον ἐξαίφνης, θύελλα δὲ πνεῦμα βίαιον
καὶ ἄφνω προσαλλόμενον, λαῖλαψ δὲ καὶ στρόβιλος πνεῦμα
εἰλούμενον κάτωθεν ἄνω, ἀναφύσημα δὲ γῆς πνεῦμα
ἄνω φερόμενον κατὰ τὴν ἐκ βυθοῦ τινος ἢ ῥήγματος ἀνάδοσιν·
10 ὅταν δὲ εἰλούμενον πολὺ φέρηται, πρηστὴρ χθόνιός ἐστιν.
Εἰληθὲν δὲ πνεῦμα ἐν νέφει παχεῖ τε καὶ νοτερῷ, καὶ ἐξωσθὲν
δι' αὐτοῦ, βιαίως ῥηγνύον τὰ συνεχῆ πιλήματα τοῦ νέφους,
βρόμον καὶ πάταγον μέγαν ἀπειργάσατο, <ὃς> βροντὴ λέγεται,
ὥσπερ ἐν ὕδατι πνεῦμα σφοδρῶς ἐλαυνόμενον. Κατὰ
15 δὲ τὴν τοῦ νέφους ἔκρηξιν πυρωθὲν τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ λάμψαν
ἀστραπὴ λέγεται· ὃ δὴ πρότερον τῆς βροντῆς προσέπεσεν,
ὕστερον γενόμενον, ἐπεὶ τὸ ἀκουστὸν ὑπὸ τοῦ ὁρατοῦ πέφυκε
φθάνεσθαι, τοῦ μὲν καὶ πόρρωθεν ὁρωμένου, τοῦ δὲ ἐπειδὰν
ἐμπελάσῃ τῇ ἀκοῇ, καὶ μάλιστα ὅταν τὸ μὲν τάχιστον ᾖ
20 τῶν ὄντων, λέγω δὲ τὸ πυρῶδες, τὸ δὲ ἧττον ταχύ, ἀερῶδες
ὄν, ἐν τῇ πλήξει πρὸς ἀκοὴν ἀφικνούμενον. Τὸ δὲ ἀστράψαν
ἀναπυρωθέν, βιαίως ἄχρι τῆς γῆς διεκθέον, κεραυνὸς
καλεῖται, ἐὰν δὲ ἡμίπυρον ᾖ, σφοδρὸν δὲ ἄλλως καὶ ἀθρόον,
πρηστήρ, ἐὰν δὲ ἄπυρον παντελῶς, τυφών· ἕκαστον δὲ τούτων
25 κατασκῆψαν εἰς τὴν γῆν σκηπτὸς ὀνομάζεται. Τῶν δὲ
κεραυνῶν οἱ μὲν αἰθαλώδεις ψολόεντες λέγονται, οἱ δὲ ταχέως
διᾴττοντες ἀργῆτες, ἑλικίαι δὲ οἱ γραμμοειδῶς φερόμενοι,
σκηπτοὶ δὲ ὅσοι κατασκήπτουσιν εἰς τὴν γῆν. Συλλήβδην
δὲ τῶν ἐν ἀέρι φαντασμάτων τὰ μέν ἐστι κατ' ἔμφασιν,
30 τὰ δὲ καθ' ὑπόστασιν—κατ' ἔμφασιν μὲν ἴριδες καὶ
ῥάβδοι καὶ τὰ τοιαῦτα, καθ' ὑπόστασιν δὲ σέλα τε καὶ
διᾴττοντες καὶ κομῆται καὶ τὰ τούτοις παραπλήσια. Ἶρις
μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἔμφασις ἡλίου τμήματος ἢ σελήνης, ἐν νέφει
νοτερῷ καὶ κοίλῳ καὶ συνεχεῖ πρὸς φαντασίαν, ὡς ἐν κατόπτρῳ,
35 θεωρουμένη κατὰ κύκλου περιφέρειαν. Ῥάβδος δέ ἐστιν
ἴριδος ἔμφασις εὐθεῖα. Ἅλως δέ ἐστιν ἔμφασις λαμπρότητος
1Some winds are direct, those, that is, which blow along a straight line; others follow a bending course, as for instance the wind called Caecias. Some winds hold sway in the winter, the south winds for example; others in the summer, such as the Etesian winds (Trade winds), which are a 5mixture of northerly and westerly winds. The so-called Ornithian winds, which occur in the spring, are a northerly type of wind.
Of violent blasts of wind, a squall is one which suddenly strikes down from above; a gust is a violent blast which springs up in a moment; a whirlwind, or tornado, is a wind which revolves in an upward direction from below. An eruption 10of wind from the earth is a blast caused by the emission of air from a deep hole or cleft; when it comes forth in a whirling mass it is called an 'earth-storm'. A wind which is whirled along in a dense watery cloud and being driven forth through it violently breaks up the continuous masses of the cloud, causes a roar and crash, which we call thunder, similar 15to the noise made by wind driven violently through water. When the wind in breaking forth from a cloud catches fire and flashes it is called lightning. The lightning reaches our perception sooner than the thunder, though it actually occurs after it, since it is the nature of that which is heard to travel less quickly than that which is seen; for the latter is 20visible at a distance, while the former is only heard when it reaches the ear, especially since the one, the fiery element, travels faster than anything else, while the other, being of the nature of air, is less swift and only reaches the ear by actually striking upon it. If the flashing body is set on fire and rushes violently to the earth it is called a 25thunderbolt; if it be only half of fire, but violent also and massive, it is called a meteor; if it is entirely free from fire, it is called a smoking bolt. They are all called 'swooping bolts', because they swoop down upon the earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called 'smouldering lightning'; sometimes it darts quickly along, and is then said to 30be 'vivid'; at other times it travels in crooked lines, and is called 'forked lightning'; when it swoops down upon some object it is called 'swooping lightning'. To sum up, some of the phenomena which occur in the air are merely appearances, while others have actual substance and reality. Rainbows and streaks in the sky and the like are only appearances, while 35flashes and shooting-stars and comets and the like have real substance.
Of violent blasts of wind, a squall is one which suddenly strikes down from above; a gust is a violent blast which springs up in a moment; a whirlwind, or tornado, is a wind which revolves in an upward direction from below. An eruption 10of wind from the earth is a blast caused by the emission of air from a deep hole or cleft; when it comes forth in a whirling mass it is called an 'earth-storm'. A wind which is whirled along in a dense watery cloud and being driven forth through it violently breaks up the continuous masses of the cloud, causes a roar and crash, which we call thunder, similar 15to the noise made by wind driven violently through water. When the wind in breaking forth from a cloud catches fire and flashes it is called lightning. The lightning reaches our perception sooner than the thunder, though it actually occurs after it, since it is the nature of that which is heard to travel less quickly than that which is seen; for the latter is 20visible at a distance, while the former is only heard when it reaches the ear, especially since the one, the fiery element, travels faster than anything else, while the other, being of the nature of air, is less swift and only reaches the ear by actually striking upon it. If the flashing body is set on fire and rushes violently to the earth it is called a 25thunderbolt; if it be only half of fire, but violent also and massive, it is called a meteor; if it is entirely free from fire, it is called a smoking bolt. They are all called 'swooping bolts', because they swoop down upon the earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called 'smouldering lightning'; sometimes it darts quickly along, and is then said to 30be 'vivid'; at other times it travels in crooked lines, and is called 'forked lightning'; when it swoops down upon some object it is called 'swooping lightning'. To sum up, some of the phenomena which occur in the air are merely appearances, while others have actual substance and reality. Rainbows and streaks in the sky and the like are only appearances, while 35flashes and shooting-stars and comets and the like have real substance.
395b
1 ἄστρου περίαυγος· διαφέρει δὲ ἴριδος ὅτι ἡ μὲν ἶρις
ἐξ ἐναντίας φαίνεται ἡλίου καὶ σελήνης, ἡ δὲ ἅλως κύκλῳ
παντὸς ἄστρου. Σέλας δέ ἐστι πυρὸς ἀθρόου ἔξαψις ἐν ἀέρι.
Τῶν δὲ σελάων ἃ μὲν ἀκοντίζεται, ἃ δὲ στηρίζεται. Ὁ μὲν
5 οὖν ἐξακοντισμός ἐστι πυρὸς γένεσις ἐκ παρατρίψεως ἐν ἀέρι
φερομένου ταχέως καὶ φαντασίαν μήκους ἐμφαίνοντος διὰ
τὸ τάχος, ὁ δὲ στηριγμός ἐστι χωρὶς φορᾶς προμήκης ἔκτασις
καὶ οἷον ἄστρου ῥύσις· πλατυνομένη δὲ κατὰ θάτερον
κομήτης καλεῖται. Πολλάκις δὲ τῶν σελάων τὰ μὲν ἐπιμένει
10 πλείονα χρόνον, τὰ δὲ παραχρῆμα σβέννυται. Πολλαὶ
δὲ καὶ ἄλλαι φαντασμάτων ἰδέαι θεωροῦνται, λαμπάδες
τε καλούμεναι καὶ δοκίδες καὶ πίθοι καὶ βόθυνοι,
κατὰ τὴν πρὸς ταῦτα ὁμοιότητα ὧδε προσαγορευθεῖσαι.
Καὶ τὰ μὲν τούτων ἑσπέρια, τὰ δὲ ἑῷα, τὰ δὲ ἀμφιφανῆ
15 θεωρεῖται, σπανίως δὲ βόρεια καὶ νότια. Πάντα δὲ ἀβέβαια·
οὐδέποτε γάρ τι τούτων ἀεὶ φανερὸν ἱστόρηται κατεστηριγμένον.
Τὰ μὲν τοίνυν ἀέρια τοιαῦτα.
Ἐμπεριέχει δὲ καὶ ἡ γῆ πολλὰς ἐν αὑτῇ, καθάπερ
ὕδατος, οὕτως καὶ πνεύματος καὶ πυρὸς πηγάς· Τούτων δὲ αἱ
20 μὲν ὑπὸ γῆν εἰσιν ἀόρατοι, πολλαὶ δὲ ἀναπνοὰς ἔχουσι καὶ
ἀναφυσήσεις, ὥσπερ Λιπάρα τε καὶ Αἴτνη καὶ αἱ ἐν Αἰόλου
νήσοις· αἳ δὴ καὶ ῥέουσι πολλάκις ποταμοῦ δίκην, καὶ
μύδρους ἀναρριπτοῦσι διαπύρους. Ἔνιαι δὲ ὑπὸ γῆν οὖσαι πλησίον
πηγαίων ὑδάτων θερμαίνουσι ταῦτα, καὶ τὰ μὲν χλιαρὰ
25 τῶν ναμάτων ἀνιᾶσι, τὰ δὲ ὑπέρζεστα, τὰ δὲ εὖ ἔχοντα
κράσεως. Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῶν πνευμάτων πολλὰ πολλαχοῦ
γῆς στόμια ἀνέῳκται· ὧν τὰ μὲν ἐνθουσιᾶν ποιεῖ τοὺς
ἐμπελάζοντας, τὰ δὲ ἀτροφεῖν, τὰ δὲ χρησμῳδεῖν, ὥσπερ
τὰ ἐν Δελφοῖς καὶ Λεβαδείᾳ, τὰ δὲ καὶ παντάπασιν ἀναιρεῖ,
30 καθάπερ τὸ ἐν Φρυγίᾳ. Πολλάκις δὲ καὶ συγγενὲς
πνεῦμα εὔκρατον ἐν γῇ παρεξωσθὲν εἰς μυχίους σήραγγας
αὐτῆς, ἔξεδρον γενόμενον ἐκ τῶν οἰκείων τόπων, πολλὰ μέρη
συνεκράδανεν. Πολλάκις δὲ πολὺ γενόμενον ἔξωθεν ἐγκατειλήθη
τοῖς ταύτης κοιλώμασι καὶ ἀποκλεισθὲν [ἐξόδου] μετὰ
35 βίας αὐτὴν συνετίναξε, ζητοῦν ἔξοδον ἑαυτῷ, καὶ ἀπειργάσατο
πάθος τοῦτο ὃ καλεῖν εἰώθαμεν σεισμόν. Τῶν δὲ σεισμῶν
1A rainbow is the reflection of a segment of the sun or of the moon, seen, like an image in a mirror, in a cloud which is moist, hollow, and continuous in appearance, and taking a circular form. A streak is a rainbow appearing in the form of a straight line. A halo is 5an appearance of brightness shining round a star; it differs from a rainbow, because the latter appears opposite the sun and moon, while the halo is formed all round a star. A light in the sky is caused by the kindling of a dense fire in the air; some lights shoot along, others are fixed. The shooting is the generation of fire by 10friction, when the fire moves quickly through the air and by its quickness produces an impression of length; the fixture is a prolonged extension without movement, an elongated star as it were. A light which broadens out towards one end is called a comet. Some heavenly lights often last a considerable time, others are extinguished 15immediately. There are numerous other peculiar kinds of appearances seen in the sky, the so-called 'torches', 'beams', 'barrels', and 'pits', which derive their names from their similarity to these objects. Some of them appear in the west, others in the east, others in both these quarters, but rarely in the north or south. None of them 20are subject to fixed laws; for none of them have been discovered to be always visible in a fixed position. Such are the phenomena of the air.
As the earth contains many sources of water, so also it contains many sources of wind and fire. Of these some are subterranean and invisible, but many have vents and spiracles, as Lipara, Etna, 25and the volcanoes of the Aeolian islands. Some of them frequently flow like rivers and cast up red-hot lumps. Some, which are under the earth near springs of water, warm them and cause some streams to flow tepid, others very hot, others tempered to a pleasant heat. Similarly, many vent-holes for wind open in every part of the earth; 30some of them cause those who draw near to them to become frenzied, others cause them to waste away, others inspire them to utter oracles, as at Delphi and Lebadia, others utterly destroy them, as the one in Phrygia. Often, too, a moderate wind engendered in the earth, being driven aside into distant holes and crannies of the earth 35and displaced from its proper locality, causes shocks in many parts.
As the earth contains many sources of water, so also it contains many sources of wind and fire. Of these some are subterranean and invisible, but many have vents and spiracles, as Lipara, Etna, 25and the volcanoes of the Aeolian islands. Some of them frequently flow like rivers and cast up red-hot lumps. Some, which are under the earth near springs of water, warm them and cause some streams to flow tepid, others very hot, others tempered to a pleasant heat. Similarly, many vent-holes for wind open in every part of the earth; 30some of them cause those who draw near to them to become frenzied, others cause them to waste away, others inspire them to utter oracles, as at Delphi and Lebadia, others utterly destroy them, as the one in Phrygia. Often, too, a moderate wind engendered in the earth, being driven aside into distant holes and crannies of the earth 35and displaced from its proper locality, causes shocks in many parts.
396a
1 οἱ μὲν εἰς πλάγια σείοντες κατ' ὀξείας γωνίας ἐπικλίνται
καλοῦνται, οἱ δὲ ἄνω ῥιπτοῦντες καὶ κάτω κατ' ὀρθὰς
γωνίας βράσται, οἱ δὲ συνιζήσεις ποιοῦντες εἰς τὰ κοῖλα
ἱζηματίαι· οἱ δὲ χάσματα ἀνοίγοντες καὶ τὴν γῆν ἀναρρηγνύντες
5 ῥῆκται καλοῦνται. Τούτων δὲ οἱ μὲν καὶ πνεῦμα
προσαναβάλλουσιν, οἱ δὲ πέτρας, οἱ δὲ πηλόν, οἱ δὲ πηγὰς
φαίνουσι τὰς πρότερον οὐκ οὔσας. Τινὲς δὲ ἀνατρέπουσι κατὰ
μίαν πρόωσιν, οὓς καλοῦσιν ὤστας. Οἱ δὲ ἀνταποπάλλοντες καὶ
ταῖς εἰς ἑκάτερον ἐγκλίσεσι καὶ ἀποπάλσεσι διορθοῦντες ἀεὶ
10 τὸ σειόμενον παλματίαι λέγονται, τρόμῳ πάθος ὅμοιον
ἀπεργαζόμενοι. Γίνονται δὲ καὶ μυκηταὶ σεισμοί, σείοντες
τὴν γῆν μετὰ βρόμου. Πολλάκις δὲ καὶ χωρὶς σεισμοῦ γίνεται
μύκημα γῆς, ὅταν τὸ πνεῦμα σείειν μὲν μὴ αὔταρκες ᾖ,
ἐνειλούμενον δὲ ἐν αὐτῇ κόπτηται μετὰ ῥοθίου βίας. Συσσωματοποιεῖται
15 δὲ τὰ εἰσιόντα πνεύματα καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν ἐν τῇ
γῇ ὑγρῶν κεκρυμμένων.
Τὰ δὲ ἀνάλογον συμπίπτει [τούτοις] καὶ ἐν θαλάσσῃ·
χάσματά τε γὰρ γίνεται θαλάσσης καὶ ἀναχωρήματα
πολλάκις καὶ κυμάτων ἐπιδρομαί, ποτὲ μὲν ἀντανακοπὴν
20 ἔχουσαι, ποτὲ δὲ πρόωσιν μόνον, ὥσπερ ἱστορεῖται περὶ
Ἑλίκην τε καὶ Βοῦραν. Πολλάκις δὲ καὶ ἀναφυσήματα
γίνεται πυρὸς ἐν τῇ θαλάσσῃ καὶ πηγῶν ἀναβλύσεις καὶ
ποταμῶν ἐκβολαὶ καὶ δένδρων ἐκφύσεις ῥοαί τε καὶ δῖναι
ταῖς τῶν πνευμάτων ἀνάλογον, αἱ μὲν ἐν μέσοις πελάγεσιν,
25 αἱ δὲ κατὰ τοὺς εὐρίπους τε καὶ πορθμούς. Πολλαί
τε ἀμπώτεις λέγονται καὶ κυμάτων ἄρσεις συμπεριοδεύειν
ἀεὶ τῇ σελήνῃ κατά τινας ὡρισμένους καιρούς. Ὡς δὲ
τὸ πᾶν εἰπεῖν, τῶν στοιχείων ἐγκεκραμένων ἀλλήλοις ἐν
ἀέρι τε καὶ γῇ καὶ θαλάσσῃ κατὰ τὸ εἰκὸς αἱ τῶν παθῶν
30 ὁμοιότητες συνίστανται, τοῖς μὲν ἐπὶ μέρους φθορὰς καὶ γενέσεις
φέρουσαι, τὸ δὲ σύμπαν ἀνώλεθρόν τε καὶ ἀγένητον
φυλάττουσαι.
1Often, too, a strong current from without becomes involved in the hollows of the earth, and, its exit being cut off, it shakes the earth violently, seeking an exit, and sets up the condition which we commonly call an earthquake. Earthquakes of which the shock is oblique, at a sharp angle, 5are known as 'horizontal earthquakes'; those which lift the earth up and down at right angles are known as 'heaving earthquakes'; those which cause the earth to settle down into hollows are called 'gaping earthquakes'; those which open up chasms and break up the earth's surface are called 'rending earthquakes'. Some of them also emit winds, others stones or 10mud, while others cause springs to appear which did not exist before. Some earthquakes cause a disturbance by means of a single shock and are known as 'thrusting earthquakes'. Others which swing to and fro and by inclinations and waves in each direction remedy the effect of their shock, are called 'vibrating earthquakes', setting up a condition which resembles 15trembling. There are also 'bellowing earthquakes', which shake the earth with a roar. Underground bellowing, however, is often heard unaccompanied by shocks, when the wind, though insufficient to cause a shock, is compressed together in the earth and beats with the force of its impetus. Blasts which penetrate into the earth are materialized also from moisture 20concealed underground.
We find analogous phenomena occurring in the sea. Chasms form in it and its waters often retire or the waves rush in; this is sometimes followed by a recoil and sometimes there is merely a forward surge of water, as is said to have occurred at Helice and Bura. Often, too, there are exhalations of fire from the sea, and springs gush 25out and river-mouths are formed and trees suddenly grow up, and currents and eddies appear, like those caused in the air by blasts of wind, sometimes in the middle of the sea, sometimes in straits and channels. Many tides and tidal waves are said always to accompany the periods of the moon at fixed intervals. In short, owing to the mingling of the elements 30together, similar conditions are produced in the air and in the earth and in the sea, causing decay and generation in detail, but preserving the whole free from destruction and generation.
We find analogous phenomena occurring in the sea. Chasms form in it and its waters often retire or the waves rush in; this is sometimes followed by a recoil and sometimes there is merely a forward surge of water, as is said to have occurred at Helice and Bura. Often, too, there are exhalations of fire from the sea, and springs gush 25out and river-mouths are formed and trees suddenly grow up, and currents and eddies appear, like those caused in the air by blasts of wind, sometimes in the middle of the sea, sometimes in straits and channels. Many tides and tidal waves are said always to accompany the periods of the moon at fixed intervals. In short, owing to the mingling of the elements 30together, similar conditions are produced in the air and in the earth and in the sea, causing decay and generation in detail, but preserving the whole free from destruction and generation.
Chapter 5 (396a33–397b6)
Καίτοι γέ τις ἐθαύμασε πῶς ποτε, ἐκ τῶν ἐναντίων
ἀρχῶν συνεστηκὼς ὁ κόσμος, λέγω δὲ ξηρῶν τε καὶ
35 ὑγρῶν, ψυχρῶν τε καὶ θερμῶν, οὐ πάλαι διέφθαρται καὶ
Yet some have wondered how it is that the Universe, if it be composed of contrary principles—namely, dry and moist, hot and cold—has not long ago perished and been destroyed.
396b
1 ἀπόλωλεν, ὡς κἂν εἰ πόλιν τινὲς θαυμάζοιεν, ὅπως διαμένει
συνεστηκυῖα ἐκ τῶν ἐναντιωτάτων ἐθνῶν, πενήτων λέγω
καὶ πλουσίων, νέων γερόντων, ἀσθενῶν ἰσχυρῶν, πονηρῶν χρηστῶν.
Ἀγνοοῦσι δὲ ὅτι τοῦτ' ἦν πολιτικῆς ὁμονοίας τὸ θαυμασιώτατον,
5 λέγω δὲ τὸ ἐκ πολλῶν μίαν καὶ ὁμοίαν ἐξ ἀνομοίων
ἀποτελεῖν διάθεσιν ὑποδεχομένην πᾶσαν καὶ φύσιν
καὶ τύχην. Ἴσως δὲ τῶν ἐναντίων ἡ φύσις γλίχεται
καὶ ἐκ τούτων ἀποτελεῖ τὸ σύμφωνον, οὐκ ἐκ τῶν ὁμοίων,
ὥσπερ ἀμέλει τὸ ἄρρεν συνήγαγε πρὸς τὸ θῆλυ καὶ οὐχ
10 ἑκάτερον πρὸς τὸ ὁμόφυλον, καὶ τὴν πρώτην ὁμόνοιαν διὰ
τῶν ἐναντίων σηνῆψεν, οὐ διὰ τῶν ὁμοίων. Ἔοικε δὲ καὶ ἡ
τέχνη τὴν φύσιν μιμουμένη τοῦτο ποιεῖν. Ζωγραφία μὲν γὰρ
λευκῶν τε καὶ μελάνων, ὠχρῶν τε καὶ ἐρυθρῶν, χρωμάτων
ἐγκερασαμένη φύσεις τὰς εἰκόνας τοῖς προηγουμένοις ἀπετέλεσε
15 συμφώνους, μουσικὴ δὲ ὀξεῖς ἅμα καὶ βαρεῖς, μακρούς
τε καὶ βραχεῖς, φθόγγους μίξασα ἐν διαφόροις φωναῖς
μίαν ἀπετέλεσεν ἁρμονίαν, γραμματικὴ δὲ ἐκ φωνηέντων
καὶ ἀφώνων γραμμάτων κρᾶσιν ποιησαμένη τὴν
ὅλην τέχνην ἀπ' αὐτῶν συνεστήσατο. Ταὐτὸ δὲ τοῦτο ἦν καὶ
20 τὸ παρὰ τῷ σκοτεινῷ λεγόμενον Ἡρακλείτῳ· «Συλλάψιες
ὅλα καὶ οὐχ ὅλα, συμφερόμενον διαφερόμενον, συνᾷδον
διᾷδον· ἐκ πάντων ἓν καὶ ἐξ ἑνὸς πάντα.»
Οὕτως οὖν καὶ τὴν τῶν ὅλων σύστασιν, οὐρανοῦ λέγω καὶ
γῆς τοῦ τε σύμπαντος κόσμου, διὰ τῆς τῶν ἐναντιωτάτων
25 κράσεως ἀρχῶν μία διεκόσμησεν ἁρμονία· ξηρὸν γὰρ ὑγρῷ,
θερμὸν δὲ ψυχρῷ, βαρεῖ τε κοῦφον μιγὲν, καὶ ὀρθὸν περιφερεῖ,
γῆν τε πᾶσαν καὶ θάλασσαν αἰθέρα τε καὶ ἥλιον
καὶ σελήνην καὶ τὸν ὅλον οὐρανὸν διεκόσμησε μία [ἡ] διὰ πάντων
διήκουσα δύναμις, ἐκ τῶν ἀμίκτων καὶ ἑτεροίων, ἀέρος
30 τε καὶ γῆς καὶ πυρὸς καὶ ὕδατος, τὸν σύμπαντα κόσμον
δημιουργήσασα καὶ μιᾷ διαλαβοῦσα σφαίρας ἐπιφανείᾳ
τάς τε ἐναντιωτάτας ἐν αὐτῷ φύσεις ἀλλήλαις ἀναγκάσασα
ὁμολογῆσαι καὶ ἐκ τούτων μηχανησαμένη τῷ παντὶ
σωτηρίαν. Αἰτία δὲ ταύτης μὲν ἡ τῶν στοιχείων ὁμολογία,
35 τῆς δὲ ὁμολογίας ἡ ἰσομοιρία καὶ τὸ μηδὲν αὐτῶν πλέον
1It is just as though one should wonder how a city continues to exist, being, as it is, composed of opposing classes—rich and poor, young and old, weak and strong, good and bad. They fail to notice that this has always been the most striking characteristic of civic concord, 5that it evolves unity out of plurality, and similarity out of dissimilarity, while it admits every kind and variety. It may perhaps be that nature has a liking for contraries and evolves harmony out of them and not out of similarities (just as she joins the male and female together and not members of the same sex), and has devised 10the original harmony by means of contraries and not similarities. The arts, too, apparently imitate nature in this respect. The art of painting, by mingling in the picture the elements of white and black, yellow and red, achieves representations which correspond to the original object. Music, too, mingling together notes, high and low, 15short and prolonged, attains to a single harmony amid different voices; while writing, mingling vowels and consonants, composes of them all its art. The saying found in Heracleitus 'the obscure' was to the same effect: 'Junctions are: wholes and not wholes, that which agrees and that which differs, that which produces harmony and that 20which produces discord; from all you get one and from one you get all.'
Thus then a single harmony orders the composition of the whole—heaven and earth and the whole Universe—by the mingling of the most contrary principles. The dry mingling with the moist, the hot with the cold, the light with the heavy, the straight with the curved, all 25the earth, the sea, the ether, the sun, the moon, and the whole heaven are ordered by a single power extending through all, which has created the whole universe out of separate and different elements—air, earth, fire, and water—embracing them all on one spherical surface and forcing the most contrary natures to live in agreement with one 30another in the universe, and thus contriving the permanence of the whole. The cause of this permanence is the agreement of the elements, and the reason of this agreement is their equal proportion and the fact that no one of them is more powerful than any other, for the heavy is equally balanced with the light and the hot with the cold.
Thus then a single harmony orders the composition of the whole—heaven and earth and the whole Universe—by the mingling of the most contrary principles. The dry mingling with the moist, the hot with the cold, the light with the heavy, the straight with the curved, all 25the earth, the sea, the ether, the sun, the moon, and the whole heaven are ordered by a single power extending through all, which has created the whole universe out of separate and different elements—air, earth, fire, and water—embracing them all on one spherical surface and forcing the most contrary natures to live in agreement with one 30another in the universe, and thus contriving the permanence of the whole. The cause of this permanence is the agreement of the elements, and the reason of this agreement is their equal proportion and the fact that no one of them is more powerful than any other, for the heavy is equally balanced with the light and the hot with the cold.
397a
1 ἕτερον ἑτέρου δύνασθαι· τὴν γὰρ ἴσην ἀντίστασιν ἔχει τὰ βαρέα
πρὸς τὰ κοῦφα καὶ τὰ θερμὰ πρὸς θάτερα, τῆς φύσεως
ἐπὶ τῶν μειζόνων διδασκούσης ὅτι τὸ ἴσον σωστικόν πώς
ἐστιν ὁμονοίας, ἡ δὲ ὁμόνοια τοῦ πάντων γενετῆρος καὶ περικαλλεστάτου
5 κόσμου. Τίς γὰρ ἂν εἴη φύσις τοῦδε κρείττων; ἣν
γὰρ ἂν εἴπῃ τις, μέρος ἐστὶν αὐτοῦ. Τό τε καλὸν πᾶν ἐπώνυμόν
ἐστι τούτου καὶ τὸ τεταγμένον, ἀπὸ τοῦ κόσμου λεγόμενον
κεκοσμῆσθαι. Τί δὲ τῶν ἐπὶ μέρους δύναιτ' ἂν ἐξισωθῆναι
τῇ κατ' οὐρανὸν τάξει τε καὶ φορᾷ τῶν ἄστρων ἡλίου τε
10 καὶ σελήνης, κινουμένων ἐν ἀκριβεστάτοις μέτροις ἐξ αἰῶνος
εἰς ἕτερον αἰῶνα; τίς δὲ γένοιτ' ἂν ἀψεύδεια τοιάδε, ἥντινα
φυλάττουσιν αἱ καλαὶ καὶ γόνιμοι τῶν ὅλων ὧραι, θέρη τε
καὶ χειμῶνας ἐπάγουσαι τεταγμένως ἡμέρας τε καὶ νύκτας
εἰς μηνὸς ἀποτέλεσμα καὶ ἐνιαυτοῦ; καὶ μὴν μεγέθει
15 μὲν οὗτος πανυπέρτατος, κινήσει δὲ ὀξύτατος, λαμπρότητι
δὲ εὐαυγέστατος, δυνάμει δὲ ἀγήρως τε καὶ ἄφθαρτος.
Οὗτος ἐναλίων ζῴων καὶ πεζῶν καὶ ἀερίων φύσεις ἐχώρισε
καὶ βίους ἐμέτρησε ταῖς ἑαυτοῦ κινήσεσιν. Ἐκ τούτου πάντα
ἐμπνεῖ τε καὶ ψυχὴν ἴσχει τὰ ζῷα. Τούτου καὶ αἱ παράδοξοι
20 νεοχμώσεις τεταγμένως ἀποτελοῦνται, συναραττόντων
μὲν ἀνέμων παντοίων, πιπτόντων δὲ ἐξ οὐρανοῦ κεραυνῶν,
ῥηγνυμένων δὲ χειμώνων ἐξαισίων. Διὰ δὲ τούτων τὸ νοτερὸν
ἐκπιεζόμενον τό τε πυρῶδες διαπνεόμενον εἰς ὁμόνοιαν ἄγει
τὸ πᾶν καὶ καθίστησιν. Ἥ τε γῆ φυτοῖς κομῶσα παντοδαποῖς
25 νάμασί τε περιβλύζουσα καὶ περιοχουμένη ζῴοις, κατὰ
καιρὸν ἐκφύουσά τε πάντα καὶ τρέφουσα καὶ δεχομένη,
μυρίας τε φέρουσα ἰδέας καὶ πάθη, τὴν ἀγήρω φύσιν ὁμοίως
τηρεῖ, καίτοι καὶ σεισμοῖς τινασσομένη καὶ πλημυρίσιν
ἐπικλυζομένη πυρκαϊαῖς τε κατὰ μέρος φλογιζομένη.
30 Ταῦτα δὲ πάντα ἔοικεν αὐτῇ πρὸς ἀγαθοῦ γινόμενα τὴν δι'
αἰῶνος σωτηρίαν παρέχειν· σειομένης τε γὰρ διεξᾴττουσιν αἱ
τῶν πνευμάτων παρεμπτώσεις κατὰ τὰ ῥήγματα τὰς ἀναπνοὰς
ἴσχουσαι, καθὼς ἄνω λέλεκται, καθαιρομένη τε ὄμβροις
ἀποκλύζεται πάντα τὰ νοσώδη, περιπνεομένη δὲ αὔραις
35 τά τε ὑπ' αὐτὴν καὶ τὰ ὑπὲρ αὐτὴν εἰλικρινεῖται. Καὶ
1Thus nature teaches us in the greater principles of the world that equality somehow tends to preserve harmony, whilst harmony preserves the universe which is the parent of all things and itself the fairest thing of all. For what created thing is more excellent? Any that one can 5name is but a part of the ordered Universe. All that is beauteous bears its name, and all that which is arranged well, for it is said to be well 'ordered', being thus called after the 'ordered' Universe. And what subordinate phenomenon could be likened to the ordered system of the heavens and the march of the stars and the sun and the moon, which 10move on in unvarying measure through age after age? Where else could be found such regularity as is observed by the goodly seasons, which produce all things and bring in due order summer and winter, day and night, to the accomplishment of the month and the year? Moreover, in greatness the universe is pre-eminent, in motion swiftest, in radiance 15most bright, and in might it knows not old age or corruption. It has divided the various creatures that live in the sea, on the earth, and in the air, and regulated their lives by its movements. Of it all living things breathe and have their life. Even all the unexpected changes which occur in it are really accomplished in an ordered sequence—diverse 20winds conflicting together, thunderbolts falling from heaven, and violent storms bursting forth. The expulsion of moisture and the exhalation of fire by these means restores the whole to harmony and stability. The earth, too, clothed with diverse vegetation, gushing forth with streams and trodden by the feet of living creatures, in due season 25bringing forth, nurturing, and receiving back all things, producing countless varieties and changes, none the less always preserves its nature untouched by age, though shaken by earthquakes, washed by floods, and in parts burnt up by fires. All these things seem to work its welfare and to ensure its eternal permanence. For when it is shaken by 30earthquakes, the winds which have been diverted into it escape forth, finding vents through the clefts, as we have already said; when it is washed by rain, it is cleansed of all that is unhealthy: and when the breezes blow about it, it is purified above and beneath. Again, the fires soften that which is frost-bound, while the frosts abate the fires.
397b
1 μὴν αἱ φλόγες μὲν τὸ παγετῶδες ἠπιαίνουσιν, οἱ πάγοι δὲ
τὰς φλόγας ἀνιᾶσιν. Καὶ τῶν ἐπὶ μέρους τὰ μὲν γίνεται,
τὰ δὲ ἀκμάζει, τὰ δὲ φθείρεται. Καὶ αἱ μὲν γενέσεις ἐπαναστέλλουσι
τὰς φθοράς, αἱ δὲ φθοραὶ κουφίζουσι τὰς γενέσεις.
5 Μία δὲ ἐκ πάντων περαινομένη σωτηρία διὰ τέλους
ἀντιπεριισταμένων ἀλλήλοις καὶ τοτὲ μὲν κρατούντων, τοτὲ
δὲ κρατουμένων, φυλάττει τὸ σύμπαν ἄφθαρτον δι'
1Of individual things upon the earth some are coming into being, others are at their prime, others are decaying; and birth checks decay and decay lightens birth. Thus an unbroken permanence, which all things conspire to secure, counteracting one another—at one time 5dominating, at another being dominated—preserves the whole unimpaired through all eternity.
Chapter 6 (397b7–401a11)
αἰῶνος.
Λοιπὸν δὴ περὶ τῆς τῶν ὅλων συνεκτικῆς αἰτίας κεφαλαιωδῶς
10 εἰπεῖν, ὃν τρόπον καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων· πλημμελὲς
γὰρ περὶ κόσμου λέγοντας, εἰ καὶ μὴ δι' ἀκριβείας,
ἀλλ' οὖν γε ὡς εἰς τυπώδη μάθησιν, τὸ τοῦ κόσμου κυριώτατον
παραλιπεῖν. Ἀρχαῖος μὲν οὖν τις λόγος καὶ πάτριός
ἐστι πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ὡς ἐκ θεοῦ πάντα καὶ διὰ θεὸν
15 συνέστηκεν, οὐδεμία δὲ φύσις αὐτὴ καθ' ἑαυτήν ἐστιν αὐτάρκης,
ἐρημωθεῖσα τῆς ἐκ τούτου σωτηρίας. Διὸ καὶ τῶν παλαιῶν
εἰπεῖν τινες προήχθησαν ὅτι πάντα ταῦτά ἐστι θεῶν
πλέα τὰ καὶ δι' ὀφθαλμῶν ἰνδαλλόμενα ἡμῖν καὶ δι' ἀκοῆς
καὶ πάσης αἰσθήσεως, τῇ μὲν θείᾳ δυνάμει πρέποντα καταβαλλόμενοι
20 λόγον, οὐ μὴν τῇ γε οὐσίᾳ. Σωτὴρ μὲν γὰρ ὄντως
ἁπάντων ἐστὶ καὶ γενέτωρ τῶν ὁπωσδήποτε κατὰ τόνδε τὸν
κόσμον συντελουμένων ὁ θεός, οὐ μὴν αὐτουργοῦ καὶ ἐπιπόνου
ζῴου κάματον ὑπομένων, ἀλλὰ δυνάμει χρώμενος ἀτρύτῳ,
δι' ἧς καὶ τῶν πόρρω δοκούντων εἶναι περιγίνεται. Τὴν μὲν οὖν
25 ἀνωτάτω καὶ πρώτην ἕδραν αὐτὸς ἔλαχεν, ὕπατός τε διὰ
τοῦτο ὠνόμασται, κατὰ τὸν ποιητὴν «ἀκροτάτῃ κορυφῇ»
τοῦ σύμπαντος ἐγκαθιδρυμένος οὐρανοῦ· μάλιστα δέ πως αὐτοῦ
τῆς δυνάμεως ἀπολαύει τὸ πλησίον αὐτοῦ σῶμα, καὶ ἔπειτα
τὸ μετ' ἐκεῖνο, καὶ ἐφεξῆς οὕτως ἄχρι τῶν καθ' ἡμᾶς
30 τόπων. Διὸ γῆ τε καὶ τὰ ἐπὶ γῆς ἔοικεν, ἐν ἀποστάσει
πλείστῃ τῆς ἐκ θεοῦ ὄντα ὠφελείας, ἀσθενῆ καὶ ἀκατάλληλα
εἶναι καὶ πολλῆς μεστὰ ταραχῆς· οὐ μὴν ἀλλὰ καθ'
ὅσον ἐπὶ πᾶν διικνεῖσθαι πέφυκε τὸ θεῖον, καὶ ἐπὶ τὰ καθ'
ἡμᾶς ὁμοίως συμβαίνει τά τε ὑπὲρ ἡμᾶς, κατὰ τὸ ἔγγιόν
35 τε καὶ πορρωτέρω θεοῦ εἶναι μᾶλλόν τε καὶ ἧττον
There still remains for us to treat briefly, as we have discussed the other subjects, of the cause which holds all things together. For in dealing with the universe, not perhaps in exact detail, yet at any rate so as to give a general idea of the subject, 10it would be wrong to omit that which is the most important thing in the universe. The old explanation which we have all inherited from our fathers, is that all things are from God and were framed for us by God, and that no created thing is of itself sufficient for itself, deprived of the permanence which it derives from him. Therefore 15some of the ancients went so far as to say that all those things are full of God which are presented to us through the eyes and the hearing and all the other senses, thus propounding a theory which, though it accords with the divine power, does not accord with the divine nature. For God is in very truth the preserver and creator of all 20that is in any way being brought to perfection in this universe; yet he endures not all the weariness of a being that administers and labours, but exerts a power which never wearies; whereby he prevails even over things which seem far distant from him. He hath himself obtained the first and highest place and is therefore called Supreme, 25and has, in the words of the poet, 'Taken his seat in heaven's topmost height'; and the heavenly body which is nighest to him most enjoys his power, and afterwards the next nearest, and so on successively until the regions wherein we dwell are reached. Wherefore the earth and the things upon the earth, being farthest removed from the benefit 30which proceeds from God, seem feeble and incoherent and full of much confusion; nevertheless, inasmuch as it is the nature of the divine to penetrate to all things, the things also of our earth receive their share of it, and the things above us according to their nearness to or distance from God receive more or less of divine benefit.
398a
1 ὠφελείας μεταλαμβάνοντα. Κρεῖττον οὖν ὑπολαβεῖν, ὃ καὶ
πρέπον ἐστὶ καὶ θεῷ μάλιστα ἁρμόζον, ὡς ἡ ἐν οὐρανῷ δύναμις
ἱδρυμένη καὶ τοῖς πλεῖστον ἀφεστηκόσιν, ὡς ἔνι γε εἰπεῖν,
καὶ σύμπασιν αἴτιος γίνεται σωτηρίας, μᾶλλον ἢ ὡς
5 διήκουσα καὶ φοιτῶσα ἔνθα μὴ καλὸν μηδὲ εὔσχημοναὐτουργεῖν αὐτουργεῖ[ν]
τὰ ἐπὶ γῆς. Τοῦτο μὲν γὰρ οὐδὲ ἀνθρώπων ἡγεμόσιν
ἁρμόττει, παντὶ καὶ τῷ τυχόντι ἐφίστασθαι ἔργῳ, λέγω δὲ οἷον
στρατιᾶς ἄρχοντι ἢ πόλεως ἢ οἴκου, [καὶ] εἰ χρεὼν στρωματόδεσμον
εἴη δῆσαι καὶ εἴ τι φαυλότερον ἀποτελεῖν ἔργον,
10 ὃ κἂν τὸ τυχὸν ἀνδράποδον ποιήσειεν, ἀλλ' οἷον ἐπὶ τοῦ μεγάλου
βασιλέως ἱστορεῖται. Τὸ <γὰρ> Καμβύσου Ξέρξου τε καὶ
Δαρείου πρόσχημα εἰς σεμνότητος καὶ ὑπεροχῆς ὕψος μεγαλοπρεπῶς
διεκεκόσμητο· αὐτὸς μὲν γάρ, ὡς λόγος, ἵδρυτο
ἐν Σούσοις ἢ Ἐκβατάνοις, παντὶ ἀόρατος, θαυμαστὸν ἐπέχων
15 βασίλειον οἶκον καὶ περίβολον χρυσῷ καὶ ἠλέκτρῳ
καὶ ἐλέφαντι ἀστράπτοντα· πυλῶνες δὲ πολλοὶ καὶ συνεχεῖς
πρόθυρά τε σύχνοις εἰργόμενα σταδίοις ἀπ' ἀλλήλων
θύραις τε χαλκαῖς καὶ τείχεσι μεγάλοις ὠχύρωτο· ἔξω
δὲ τούτων ἄνδρες οἱ πρῶτοι καὶ δοκιμώτατοι διεκεκόσμηντο,
20 οἱ μὲν ἀμφ' αὐτὸν τὸν βασιλέα δορυφόροι τε καὶ θεράποντες,
οἱ δὲ ἑκάστου περιβόλου φύλακες, πυλωροί τε καὶ ὠτακουσταὶ
λεγόμενοι, ὡς ἂν ὁ βασιλεὺς αὐτός, δεσπότης καὶ θεὸς
ὀνομαζόμενος, πάντα μὲν βλέποι, πάντα δὲ ἀκούοι. Χωρὶς
δὲ τούτων ἄλλοι καθειστήκεσαν προσόδων ταμίαι καὶ στρατηγοὶ
25 πολέμων καὶ κυνηγεσίων δώρων τε ἀποδεκτῆρες τῶν
τε λοιπῶν ἔργων ἕκαστοι κατὰ τὰς χρείας ἐπιμεληταί. Τὴν
δὲ σύμπασαν ἀρχὴν τῆς Ἀσίας, περατουμένην Ἑλλησπόντῳ
μὲν ἐκ τῶν πρὸς ἑσπέραν μερῶν, Ἰνδῷ δὲ ἐκ τῶν πρὸς
ἕω, διειλήφεσαν κατὰ ἔθνη στρατηγοὶ καὶ σατράπαι καὶ
30 βασιλεῖς, δοῦλοι τοῦ μεγάλου βασιλέως, ἡμεροδρόμοι τε
καὶ σκοποὶ καὶ ἀγγελιαφόροι φρυκτωριῶν τε ἐποπτῆρες.
Τοσοῦτος δὲ ἦν ὁ κόσμος, καὶ μάλιστα τῶνφρυκτωριῶν φρυκτωρ[ι]ῶν,
κατὰ διαδοχὰς πυρσευόντων ἀλλήλοις ἐκ περάτων τῆς ἀρχῆς
μέχρι Σούσων καὶ Ἐκβατάνων, ὥστε τὸν βασιλέα γινώσκειν
35 αὐθημερὸν πάντα τὰ ἐν τῇ Ἀσίᾳ καινουργούμενα.
1It is therefore better, even as it is more seemly and befitting God, to suppose that the power which is stablished in the heavens is the cause of permanence even in those things which are furthest removed from it—in a word, in all things—rather than to hold that it 5passes forth and travels to and fro to places which become and befit it not, and personally administers the affairs of this earth. For indeed, to superintend any and every operation does not become even the rulers among mankind—the chief, for example, of an army or a city, or the head of a household, if it were necessary to bind 10up a sack of bedding or perform any other somewhat menial task, such as in the days of the Great King would not be performed by any ordinary slave.
Nay, we are told that the outward show observed by Cambyses and Xerxes and Darius was magnificently ordered with the utmost state and splendour. The king himself, so the story goes, 15established himself at Susa or Ecbatana, invisible to all, dwelling in a wondrous palace within a fence gleaming with gold and amber and ivory. And it had many gateways one after another, and porches many furlongs apart from one another, secured by bronze doors and mighty walls. Outside these the chief and most distinguished men had 20their appointed place, some being the king's personal servants, his bodyguard and attendants, others the guardians of each of the enclosing walls, the so-called janitors and 'listeners', that the king himself, who was called their master and deity, might thus see and hear all things. Besides these, others were appointed as stewards 25of his revenues and leaders in war and hunting, and receivers of gifts, and others charged with all the other necessary functions. All the Empire of Asia, bounded on the west by the Hellespont and on the east by the Indus, was apportioned according to races among generals and satraps and subject-princes of the Great King; and 30there were couriers and watchmen and messengers and superintendents of signal-fires. So effective was the organization, in particular the system of signal-fires, which formed a chain of beacons from the furthest bounds of the empire to Susa and Ecbatana, that the king received the same day the news of all that was happening in Asia.
Nay, we are told that the outward show observed by Cambyses and Xerxes and Darius was magnificently ordered with the utmost state and splendour. The king himself, so the story goes, 15established himself at Susa or Ecbatana, invisible to all, dwelling in a wondrous palace within a fence gleaming with gold and amber and ivory. And it had many gateways one after another, and porches many furlongs apart from one another, secured by bronze doors and mighty walls. Outside these the chief and most distinguished men had 20their appointed place, some being the king's personal servants, his bodyguard and attendants, others the guardians of each of the enclosing walls, the so-called janitors and 'listeners', that the king himself, who was called their master and deity, might thus see and hear all things. Besides these, others were appointed as stewards 25of his revenues and leaders in war and hunting, and receivers of gifts, and others charged with all the other necessary functions. All the Empire of Asia, bounded on the west by the Hellespont and on the east by the Indus, was apportioned according to races among generals and satraps and subject-princes of the Great King; and 30there were couriers and watchmen and messengers and superintendents of signal-fires. So effective was the organization, in particular the system of signal-fires, which formed a chain of beacons from the furthest bounds of the empire to Susa and Ecbatana, that the king received the same day the news of all that was happening in Asia.
398b
1 Νομιστέον δὴ τὴν τοῦ μεγάλου βασιλέως ὑπεροχὴν πρὸς τὴν
τοῦ τὸν κόσμον ἐπέχοντος θεοῦ τοσοῦτον καταδεεστέραν ὅσον
τῆς ἐκείνου τὴν τοῦ φαυλοτάτου τε καὶ ἀσθενεστάτου ζῴου,
ὥστε, εἴπερ ἄσεμνον ἦν αὐτὸν αὑτῷ δοκεῖν Ξέρξην αὐτουργεῖν
5 ἅπαντα καὶ ἐπιτελεῖν ἃ βούλοιτο καὶ ἐφιστάμενον <ἑκασταχοῦ>
διοικεῖν, πολὺ μᾶλλον ἀπρεπὲς ἂν εἴη θεῷ. Σεμνότερον
δὲ καὶ πρεπωδέστερον αὐτὸν μὲν ἐπὶ τῆς ἀνωτάτω χώρας ἱδρῦσθαι,
τὴν δὲ δύναμιν διὰ τοῦ σύμπαντος κόσμου διήκουσαν ἥλιόν
τε κινεῖν καὶ σελήνην καὶ τὸν πάντα οὐρανὸν περιάγειν αἴτιόν τε
10 γίνεσθαι τοῖς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς σωτηρίας. Οὐδὲν γὰρ ἐπιτεχνήσεως
δεῖ καὶ ὑπηρεσίας τῆς παρ' ἑτέρων, ὥσπερ τοῖς
παρ' ἡμῖν ἄρχουσι τῆς πολυχειρίας διὰ τὴν ἀσθένειαν, ἀλλὰ
τοῦτο ἦν τὸ θειότατον, τὸ μετὰ ῥᾳστώνης καὶ ἁπλῆς κινήσεως
παντοδαπὰς ἀποτελεῖν ἰδέας, ὥσπερ ἀμέλει δρῶσιν οἱ μηχανοτέχναι,
15 διὰ μιᾶς ὀργάνου σχαστηρίας πολλὰς καὶ
ποικίλας ἐνεργείας ἀποτελοῦντες. Ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ οἱ νευροσπάσται
μίαν μήρινθον ἐπισπασάμενοι ποιοῦσι καὶ αὐχένα
κινεῖσθαι καὶ χεῖρα τοῦ ζῴου καὶ ὦμον καὶ ὀφθαλμόν, ἔστι
δὲ ὅτε πάντα τὰ μέρη, μετά τινος εὐρυθμίας. Οὕτως οὖν καὶ
20 ἡ θεία φύσις ἀπό τινος ἁπλῆς κινήσεως τοῦ πρώτου τὴν δύναμιν
εἰς τὰ συνεχῆ δίδωσι καὶ ἀπ' ἐκείνων πάλιν εἰς τὰ
πορρωτέρω, μέχρις ἂν διὰ τοῦ παντὸς διεξέλθῃ· κινηθὲν γὰρ
ἕτερον ὑφ' ἑτέρου καὶ αὐτὸ πάλιν ἐκίνησεν ἄλλο σὺν κόσμῳ,
δρώντων μὲν πάντων οἰκείως ταῖς σφετέραις κατασκευαῖς,
25 οὐ τῆς αὐτῆς δὲ ὁδοῦ πᾶσιν οὔσης, ἀλλὰ διαφόρου καὶ ἑτεροίας,
ἔστι δὲ οἷς καὶ ἐναντίας, καίτοι τῆς πρώτης οἷον ἐνδόσεως
εἰς κίνησιν μιᾶς γενομένης· ὥσπερ ἂν εἴ τις ἐξ ἄγγους
ὁμοῦ ῥίψειε σφαῖραν καὶ κύβον καὶ κῶνον καὶ κύλινδρον—ἕκαστον
γὰρ αὐτῶν κατὰ τὸ ἴδιον κινηθήσεται σχῆμα—
30 ἢ εἴ τις ὁμοῦ ζῷον ἔνυδρόν τε καὶ χερσαῖον καὶ πτηνὸν ἐν
τοῖς κόλποις ἔχων ἐκβάλοι· δῆλον γὰρ ὅτι τὸ μὲν νηκτὸν
ἁλόμενον εἰς τὴν ἑαυτοῦ δίαιταν ἐκνήξεται, τὸ δὲ χερσαῖον
εἰς τὰ σφέτερα ἤθη καὶ νομοὺς διεξερπύσει, τὸ δὲ ἀέριον
ἐξαρθὲν ἐκ γῆς μετάρσιον οἰχήσεται πετόμενον, μιᾶς τῆς
35 πρώτης αἰτίας πᾶσιν ἀποδούσης τὴν οἰκείαν εὐμάρειαν. Οὕτως
1Now we must suppose that the majesty of the Great King falls as far short of that of the God who possesses the universe, as that of the feeblest and weakest creature is inferior to that of the king of Persia. Wherefore, if it was beneath the dignity of Xerxes to appear 5himself to administer all things and to carry out his own wishes and superintend the government of his kingdom, such functions would be still less becoming for a god. Nay, it is more worthy of his dignity and more befitting that he should be enthroned in the highest region, and that his power, extending through the whole universe, should 10move the sun and moon and make the whole heaven revolve and be the cause of permanence to all that is on this earth. For he needs no contrivance or the service of others, as our earthly rulers, owing to their feebleness, need many hands to do their work; but it is most characteristic of the divine to be able to accomplish diverse kinds of 15work with ease and by simple movement, even as past masters of a craft by one turn of a machine accomplish many different operations. And just as puppet-showmen by pulling a single string make the neck and hand and shoulder and eye and sometimes all the parts of the figure move with a certain harmony; so too the divine nature, by simple 20movement of that which is nearest to it, imparts its power to that which next succeeds, and thence further and further until it extends over all things. For one thing, moved by another, itself in due order moves something else, each acting according to its own constitution, and not all following the same course but different and various 25and sometimes even contrary courses; although the first impulse, as it may be called, was directed to a single form of motion. It is just as though one should cast from one vessel at the same time a sphere, a cube, a cone, and a cylinder; each of them will move according to its particular shape. Or if one should hold in the folds of a 30garment a water-animal, a land-animal, and a bird, and let them go; clearly the animal that swims will leap into its own element and swim away, the land-animal will creep away to its own haunts and pastures, the bird of the air will raise itself aloft from the earth and fly away, though one original cause gave each its aptitude for movement.
399a
1 καὶ ἐπὶ κόσμου· διὰ γὰρ ἁπλῆς τοῦ σύμπαντος οὐρανοῦ
περιαγωγῆς ἡμέρᾳ καὶ νυκτὶ περατουμένης ἀλλοῖαι
πάντων διέξοδοι γίνονται, καίτοι ὑπὸ μιᾶς σφαίρας περιεχομένων,
τῶν μὲν θᾶττον, τῶν δὲ σχολαιότερον κινουμένων
5 παρά τε τὰ τῶν διαστημάτων μήκη καὶ τὰς ἰδίας ἑκάστων
κατασκευάς. Σελήνη μὲν γὰρ ἐν μηνὶ τὸν ἑαυτῆς διαπεραίνεται
κύκλον αὐξομένη τε καὶ μειουμένη καὶ φθίνουσα,
ἥλιος δὲ ἐν ἐνιαυτῷ καὶ οἱ τούτου ἰσόδρομοι, ὅ τε Φωσφόρος
καὶ ὁ Ἑρμοῦ λεγόμενος, ὁ δὲ Πυρόεις ἐν διπλασίονι τούτων
10 χρόνῳ, ὁ δὲ Διὸς ἐν ἑξαπλασίονι τούτου, καὶ τελευταῖος ὁ
Κρόνου λεγόμενος ἐν διπλασίονι καὶ ἡμίσει τοῦ ὑποκάτω.
Μία δὲ ἐκ πάντων ἁρμονία συνᾳδόντων καὶ χορευόντων κατὰ
τὸν οὐρανὸν ἐξ ἑνός τε γίνεται καὶ εἰς ἓν ἀπολήγει, κόσμον
ἐτύμως τὸ σύμπαν ἀλλ' οὐκ ἀκοσμίαν ὀνομάσασα. Καθάπερ
15 δὲ ἐν χορῷ κορυφαίου κατάρξαντος συνεπηχεῖ πᾶς ὁ χορὸς
ἀνδρῶν, ἔσθ' ὅτε καὶ γυναικῶν, ἐν διαφόροις φωναῖς ὀξυτέραις
καὶ βαρυτέραις μίαν ἁρμονίαν ἐμμελῆ κεραννύντων,
οὕτως ἔχει καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ τὸ σύμπαν διέποντος θεοῦ· κατὰ γὰρ
τὸ ἄνωθεν ἐνδόσιμον ὑπὸ τοῦ φερωνύμως ἂν κορυφαίου προςαγορευθέντος
20 κινεῖται μὲν τὰ ἄστρα ἀεὶ καὶ ὁ σύμπας οὐρανός,
πορεύεται δὲ διττὰς πορείας ὁ παμφαὴς ἥλιος, τῇ μὲν
ἡμέραν καὶ νύκτα διορίζων ἀνατολῇ καὶ δύσει, τῇ δὲ τὰς
τέσσαρας ὥρας ἄγων τοῦ ἔτους, πρόσω τε βόρειος καὶ ὀπίσω
νότιος διεξέρπων. Γίνονται δὲ ὑετοὶ κατὰ καιρὸν καὶ ἄνεμοι
25 καὶ δρόσοι τά τε πάθη τὰ ἐν τῷ περιέχοντι συμβαίνοντα
διὰ τὴν πρώτην καὶ ἀρχέγονον αἰτίαν. Ἕπονται δὲ τούτοις
ποταμῶν ἐκροαί, θαλάσσης ἀνοιδήσεις, δένδρων ἐκφύσεις,
καρπῶν πεπάνσεις, γοναὶ ζῴων, ἐκτροφαί τε πάντων καὶ
ἀκμαὶ καὶ φθίσεις, συμβαλλομένης πρὸς ταῦτα καὶ τῆς
30 ἑκάστου κατασκευῆς, ὡς ἔφην. Ὅταν οὖν ὁ πάντων ἡγεμών τε
καὶ γενέτωρ, ἀόρατος ὢν ἄλλῳ πλὴν λογισμῷ, σημήνῃ
πάσῃ φύσει μεταξὺ οὐρανοῦ τε καὶ γῆς φερομένῃ, κινεῖται
πᾶσα ἐνδελεχῶς ἐν κύκλοις καὶ πέρασιν ἰδίοις, ποτὲ μὲν
ἀφανιζομένη, ποτὲ δὲ φαινομένη, μυρίας ἰδέας ἀναφαίνουσά
35 τε καὶ πάλιν ἀποκρύπτουσα ἐκ μιᾶς ἀρχῆς. Ἔοικε δὲ κομιδῇ
1So is it with the universe; by a single revolution of the whole within the bounds of day and night, the different orbits of all the heavenly bodies are produced, though all are enclosed in a single sphere, some moving more quickly, others more slowly, according to the distances between 5them and the individual composition of each. For the moon accomplishes her circuit in a month, waxing and waning and disappearing; the sun and the heavenly bodies whose course is of equal length, namely those called the 'Lightbearer' and Hermes, perform their revolution in a year; the 'Fiery star' in double that period; the star of Zeus in six years; and lastly 10the so-called star of Cronos in a period two and a half times as long as the heavenly body next below it. The single harmony produced by all the heavenly bodies singing and dancing together springs from one source and ends by achieving one purpose, and has rightly bestowed the name not of 'disordered' but of 'ordered universe' upon the whole. And just as in 15a chorus, when the leader gives the signal to begin, the whole chorus of men, or it may be of women, joins in the song, mingling a single studied harmony among different voices, some high and some low; so too is it with the God that rules the whole world. For at the signal given from on high by him who may well be called their chorus-leader, the stars and the 20whole heaven always move, and the sun that illumines all things travels forth on his double course, whereby he both divides day and night by his rising and setting, and also brings the four seasons of the year, as he moves forwards towards the north and backwards towards the south. And in their own due season the rain, the winds, and the dews, and all the 25other phenomena which occur in the region which surrounds the Earth, are produced by the first, primaeval cause. These are followed by the flowing of rivers, the swelling of the sea, the growth of trees, the ripening of fruits, the birth of animals, the nurturing and the prime and decay of all things, to which, as I have said, their individual composition 30contributes. When, therefore, the ruler and parent of all, invisible save to the mind of the eye, gives the word to all nature that moves betwixt heaven and earth, the whole revolves unceasingly in its own circuits and within its own bounds, sometimes unseen and sometimes appearing, revealing and again hiding diverse manners of things, from one and the same cause.
399b
1 τὸ δρώμενον τοῖς ἐν πολέμου καιροῖς μάλιστα γινομένοις,
ἐπειδὰν ἡ σάλπιγξ σημήνῃ τῷ στρατοπέδῳ· τότε γὰρ
τῆς φωνῆς ἕκαστος ἀκούσας ὁ μὲν ἀσπίδα ἀναιρεῖται, ὁ δὲ
θώρακα ἐνδύεται, ὁ δὲ κνημῖδας ἢ κράνος ἢ ζωστῆρα περιτίθεται·
5 καὶ ὁ μὲν ἵππον χαλινοῖ, ὁ δὲ συνωρίδα ἀναβαίνει,
ὁ δὲ σύνθημα παρεγγυᾷ· καθίσταται δὲ εὐθέως ὁ μὲν λοχαγὸς
εἰς λόχον, ὁ δὲ ταξίαρχος εἰς τάξιν, ὁ δὲ ἱππεὺς
ἐπὶ κέρας, ὁ δὲ ψιλὸς εἰς τὴν ἰδίαν ἐκτρέχει χώραν· πάντα
δὲ ὑφ' ἕνα σημάντορα δονεῖται κατὰ προστάξιν τοῦ τὸ κράτος
10 ἔχοντος ἡγεμόνος. Οὕτω χρὴ καὶ περὶ τοῦ σύμπαντος φρονεῖν·
ὑπὸ γὰρ μιᾶς ῥοπῆς ὀτρυνομένων ἁπάντων γίνεται τὰ οἰκεῖα,
καὶ ταύτης ἀοράτου καὶ ἀφανοῦς. Ὅπερ οὐδαμῶς ἐστιν ἐμπόδιον
οὔτε ἐκείνῃ πρὸς τὸ δρᾶν οὔτε ἡμῖν πρὸς τὸ πιστεῦσαι·
καὶ γὰρ ἡ ψυχή, δι' ἣν ζῶμέν τε καὶ οἴκους καὶ πόλεις
15 ἔχομεν, ἀόρατος οὖσα τοῖς ἔργοις αὐτῆς ὁρᾶται· πᾶς γὰρ
ὁ τοῦ βίου διάκοσμος ὑπὸ ταύτης εὕρηται καὶ διατέτακται
καὶ συνέχεται, γῆς ἀρόσεις καὶ φυτεύσεις, τέχνης ἐπίνοιαι,
χρήσεις νόμων, κόσμος πολιτείας, ἔνδημοι πράξεις, ὑπερόριος
πόλεμος, εἰρήνη. Ταῦτα χρὴ καὶ περὶ θεοῦ διανοεῖσθαι,
20 δυνάμει μὲν ὄντος ἰσχυροτάτου, κάλλει δὲ εὐπρεπεστάτου,
ζωῇ δὲ ἀθανάτου, ἀρετῇ δὲ κρατίστου, διότι πάσῃ θνητῇ
φύσει γενόμενος ἀθεώρητος ἀπ' αὐτῶν τῶν ἔργων θεωρεῖται.
Τὰ γὰρ πάθη, καὶ τὰ δι' ἀέρος ἅπαντα καὶ τὰ ἐπὶ γῆς
καὶ τὰ ἐν ὕδατι, θεοῦ λέγοιτ' ἂν ὄντως ἔργα εἶναι τοῦ τὸν
25 κόσμον ἐπέχοντος· ἐξ οὗ, κατὰ τὸν φυσικὸν Ἐμπεδοκλέα,
«πάνθ' ὅσα τ' ἦν ὅσα τ' ἔσθ' ὅσα τ' ἔσται ὀπίσσω,
δένδρεά τ' ἐβλάστησε καὶ ἀνέρες ἠδὲ γυναῖκες
θῆρές τ' οἰωνοί τε καὶ ὑδατοθρέμμονες ἰχθῦς.»
Ἔοικε δὲ ὄντως, εἰ καὶ μικρότερον παραβαλεῖν, τοῖς
30 ὀμφαλοῖς λεγομένοις τοῖς ἐν ταῖς ψαλίσιν [λίθοις], οἳ
μέσοι κείμενοι κατὰ τὴν εἰς ἑκάτερον μέρος ἔνδεσιν ἐν ἁρμονίᾳ
τηροῦσι καὶ ἐν τάξει τὸ πᾶν σχῆμα τῆς ψαλίδος καὶ
ἀκίνητον. Φασὶ δὲ καὶ τὸν ἀγαλματοποιὸν Φειδίαν κατασκευάζοντα
τὴν ἐν ἀκροπόλει Ἀθηνᾶν ἐν μέσῃ τῇ ταύτης
35 ἀσπίδι τὸ ἑαυτοῦ πρόσωπον ἐντυπώσασθαι, καὶ συνδῆσαι τῷ
1Very like is it to that which happens in times of war, when the trumpet sounds to the army; then each soldier hears its note, and one takes up his shield, another dons his breast-plate; another puts on his greaves or his helmet or his sword-belt; one puts 5the bit in his horse's mouth, another mounts his chariot, another passes along the watchword; the captain betakes himself straightway to his company, the commander to his division, the horseman to his squadron, the light-armed warrior hastens to his appointed place; all is hurry and movement in obedience to one word of 10command, to carry out the orders of the leader who is supreme over all. Even so must we suppose concerning the universe; by one impelling force, unseen and hidden from our eyes, all things are stirred and perform their individual functions. That this force is unseen stands in the way neither of its action nor of our belief 15in it. For the spirit of intelligence whereby we live and dwell in houses and communities, though invisible, is yet seen in its operations; for by it the whole ordering of life has been discovered and organized and is held together—the ploughing and planting of the earth, the discovery of the arts, the use of law, 20the ordering of constitutions, the administration of home affairs and war outside our borders and peace. Thus, too, must we think of God, who in might is most powerful, in beauty most fair, in time immortal, in virtue supreme; for, though he is invisible to all mortal nature, yet is he seen in his very works. For all that 25happens in the air, on the earth, and in the water, may truly be said to be the work of God, who possesses the universe; from whom, in the words of Empedocles, the natural philosopher, 'Whatsoever hath been and is now and shall be hereafter, all alike hath its birth—men, women, trees of the forest, beasts of the field 30and fowls of the air and fish in the water.'
To use a somewhat humble illustration, we might with truth compare the ordering of the universe to the so-called 'key-stones' in arches, which, placed at the junction of the two sides, ensure the balance and arrangement of the whole structure of the arch and give it stability.
To use a somewhat humble illustration, we might with truth compare the ordering of the universe to the so-called 'key-stones' in arches, which, placed at the junction of the two sides, ensure the balance and arrangement of the whole structure of the arch and give it stability.
400a
1 ἀγάλματι διά τινος ἀφανοῦς δημιουργίας, ὥστε ἐξ ἀνάγκης,
εἴ τις βούλοιτο αὐτὸ περιαιρεῖν, τὸ σύμπαν ἄγαλμα λύειν
τε καὶ συγχεῖν. Τοῦτον οὖν ἔχει τὸν λόγον ὁ θεὸς ἐν κόσμῳ,
συνέχων τὴν τῶν ὅλων ἁρμονίαν τε καὶ σωτηρίαν, πλὴν οὔτε
5 μέσος ὤν, ἔνθα ἡ γῆ τε καὶ ὁ θολερὸς τόπος οὗτος, ἀλλ'
ἄνω καθαρὸς ἐν καθαρῷ χωρῷ βεβηκώς, ὃν ἐτύμως καλοῦμεν
οὐρανὸν μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ ὅρον εἶναι τὸν ἄνω, Ὄλυμπον δὲ οἷον
ὁλολαμπῆ τε καὶ παντὸς ζόφου καὶ ἀτάκτου κινήματος κεχωρισμένον,
οἷα γίνεται παρ' ἡμῖν διὰ χειμῶνος καὶ ἀνέμων
10 βίας, ὥσπερ ἔφη καὶ ὁ ποιητὴς
«Οὔλυμπόνδ' ὅθι φασὶ θεῶν ἕδος ἀσφαλὲς αἰεὶ
ἔμμεναι· οὔτ' ἀνέμοισι τινάσσεται οὔτε ποτ' ὄμβρῳ
δεύεται, οὔτε χιὼν ἐπιπίλναται, ἀλλὰ μάλ' αἴθρη
πέπταται ἀνέφελος, λευκὴ δ' ἐπιδέδρομεν αἴγλη.»
15 συνεπιμαρτυρεῖ δὲ καὶ ὁ βίος ἅπας, τὴν ἄνω χώραν ἀποδοὺς
θεῷ· καὶ γὰρ πάντες ἄνθρωποι ἀνατείνομεν τὰς χεῖρας
εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν εὐχὰς ποιούμενοι. Καθ' ὃν λόγον οὐ κακῶς
κἀκεῖνο ἀναπεφώνηται
«Ζεὺς δ' ἔλαχ' οὐρανὸν εὐρὺν ἐν αἰθέρι καὶ νεφέλῃσι.»
20 διὸ καὶ τῶν αἰσθητῶν τὰ τιμιώτατα τὸν αὐτὸν ἐπέχει τόπον,
ἄστρα τε καὶ ἥλιος καὶ σελήνη, μόνα τε τὰ οὐράνια
διὰ τοῦτο ἀεὶ τὴν αὐτὴν σώζοντα τάξιν διακεκόσμηται, καὶ
οὔποτε ἀλλοιωθέντα μετεκινήθη, καθάπερ τὰ ἐπὶ γῆς εὔτρεπτα
ὄντα πολλὰς ἑτεροιώσεις καὶ πάθη ἀναδέδεκται·
25 σεισμοί τε γὰρ ἤδη βίαιοι πολλὰ μέρη τῆς γῆς ἀνέρρηξαν,
ὄμβροι τε κατέκλυσαν ἐξαίσιοι καταρραγέντες, ἐπιδρομαί
τε κυμάτων καὶ ἀναχωρήσεις πολλάκις καὶ ἠπείρους ἐθαλάττωσαν
καὶ θάλαττας ἠπείρωσαν, βιαί τε πνευμάτων
καὶ τυφώνων ἔστιν ὅτε πόλεις ὅλας ἀνέτρεψαν, πυρκαϊαί τε
30 καὶ φλόγες αἱ μὲν ἐξ οὐρανοῦ γενόμεναι πρότερον, ὥσπερ
φασίν, ἐπὶ Φαέθοντος τὰ πρὸς ἕω μέρη κατέφλεξαν, αἱ
δὲ πρὸς ἑσπέραν ἐκ γῆς ἀναβλύσασαι καὶ ἐκφυσήσασαι,
καθάπερ τῶν ἐν Αἴτνῃ κρατήρων ἀναρραγέντων καὶ ἀνὰ τὴν
γῆν φερομένων χειμάρρου δίκην. Ἔνθα καὶ τὸ τῶν εὐσεβῶν
1Moreover, they say that the sculptor Pheidias, when he was setting up the Athena on the Acropolis, represented his own features in the centre of her shield, and so attached it to the statue by a hidden contrivance, that any one who tried to cut it out, thereby necessarily shattered and overthrew 5the whole statue. The position of God in the universe is analogous to this, for he preserves the harmony and permanence of all things; save only that he has his seat not in the midst, where the earth and this our troubled world is situated, but himself pure he has gone up into a pure region, to which we rightly give the name of heaven, for it is the furthest 10boundary of the upper world, and the name of Olympus, because it is all-bright and free from all gloom and disordered motion, such as is caused on our earth by storms and the violence of the wind. Even thus speaks the poet Homer—'Unto Olympus' height, where men say that the gods have their dwelling, alway safe and secure; no wind ever shaketh its stillness, nor is it 15wet with the rain; no snow draweth nigh; but unclouded, ever the air is outspread, and a white sheen floateth about it.' This, too, is borne out by the general habit of mankind, which assigns the regions above to God; for we all stretch up our hands to heaven when we offer prayers. Wherefore these words of the poet are not spoken amiss, 'Heaven belongeth to Zeus, 20wide spread mid the clouds and the ether.' Therefore also the objects of sense which are held in the highest esteem occupy the same region, to wit the stars and the sun and moon. For this cause the heavenly bodies alone are so arranged that they ever preserve the same order, and never alter or move from their course, while the things of earth, being mutable, admit 25of many changes and conditions. For ere now mighty earthquakes have rent the earth in diverse places, and violent rains have burst forth and flooded it, and the inroads and withdrawals of waves have often turned the dry land into sea and sea into dry land, and the might of winds and hurricanes has sometimes overthrown whole cities, and fires and flames have consumed 30the earth, either coming forth from heaven in former times, even as men say that in the days of Phaethon they burnt up the eastern regions of the earth, or else gushing forth and breathing from the earth in the west, as when the craters of Etna burst and flowed like a torrent over the earth.
400b
1 γένος ἐξόχως ἐτίμησε τὸ δαιμόνιον· περικαταληφθέντων γὰρ
<αὐτῶν> ὑπὸ τοῦ ῥεύματος διὰ τὸ βαστάζειν γέροντας ἐπὶ τῶν
ὤμων γονεῖς καὶ σώζειν, πλησίον [αὐτῶν] γενόμενος ὁ τοῦ
πυρὸς ποταμὸς ἐξεσχίσθη παρέτρεψέ τε τοῦ φλογμοῦ τὸ μὲν
5 ἔνθα, τὸ δὲ ἔνθα, καὶ ἐτήρησεν ἀβλαβεῖς ἅμα τοῖς γονεῦσι
τοὺς νεανίσκους. Καθόλου δὲ ὅπερ ἐν νηὶ μὲν κυβερνήτης, ἐν
ἅρματι δὲ ἡνίοχος, ἐν χορῷ δὲ κορυφαῖος, ἐν πόλει δὲνομοθέτης νομο<θέτη>ς,
ἐν στρατοπέδῳ δὲ ἡγεμών, τοῦτο θεὸς ἐν κόσμῳ,
πλὴν καθ' ὅσον τοῖς μὲν καματηρὸν τὸ ἄρχειν πολυκίνητόν τε
10 καὶ πολυμέριμνον, τῷ δὲ ἄλυπον ἄπονόν τε καὶ πάσης κεχωρισμένον
σωματικῆς ἀσθενείας· ἐν ἀκινήτῳ γὰρ ἱδρυμένος
δυνάμει πάντα κινεῖ καὶ περιάγει, ὅπου βούλεται καὶ ὅπως,
ἐν διαφόροις ἰδέαις τε καὶ φύσεσιν, ὥσπερ ἀμέλει καὶ ὁ
τῆς πόλεως νόμος ἀκίνητος ὢν ἐν ταῖς τῶν χρωμένων ψυχαῖς
15 πάντα οἰκονομεῖ τὰ κατὰ τὴν πολιτείαν· ἐφεπόμενοι γὰρ
αὐτῷ δηλονότι ἐξίασιν ἄρχοντες μὲν ἐπὶ τὰ ἀρχεῖα, θεσμοθέται
δὲ εἰς τὰ οἰκεῖα δικαστήρια, βουλευταὶ δὲ καὶ ἐκκλησιασταὶ
εἰς συνέδρια τὰ προσήκοντα, καὶ ὁ μέν τις εἰς
τὸ πρυτανεῖον βαδίζει σιτησόμενος, ὁ δὲ πρὸς τοὺς δικαστὰς
20 ἀπολογησόμενος, ὁ δὲ εἰς τὸ δεσμωτήριον ἀποθανούμενος.
Γίνονται δὲ καὶ δημοθοινίαι νόμιμοι καὶ πανηγύρεις ἐνιαύσιοι
θεῶν τε θυσίαι καὶ ἡρώων θεραπεῖαι καὶ χοαὶ κεκμηκότων·
ἄλλα δὲ ἄλλως ἐνεργούμενα κατὰ μίαν πρόσταξιν ἢ
νόμιμον ἐξουσίαν σώζει τὸ τοῦ ποιήσαντος ὄντως ὅτι
25 «πόλις δ' ὁμοῦ μὲν θυμιαμάτων γέμει,
ὁμοῦ δὲ παιάνων τε καὶ στεναγμάτων,»
οὕτως ὑποληπτέον καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς μείζονος πόλεως, λέγω
δὲ τοῦ κόσμου· νόμος γὰρ ἡμῖν ἰσοκλινὴς ὁ θεός, οὐδεμίαν
ἐπιδεχόμενος διόρθωσιν ἢ μετάθεσιν, κρείττων δέ,
30 οἶμαι, καὶ βεβαιότερος τῶν ἐν ταῖς κύρβεσιν ἀναγεγραμμένων.
Ἡγουμένου δὲ ἀκινήτως αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐμμελῶς ὁ σύμπας
οἰκονομεῖται διάκοσμος οὐρανοῦ καὶ γῆς, μεμερισμένος
κατὰ τὰς φύσεις πάσας διὰ τῶν οἰκείων σπερμάτων εἴς τε
φυτὰ καὶ ζῷα κατὰ γένη τε καὶ εἴδη· καὶ γὰρ ἄμπελοι
1(There also the favour of heaven bestowed especial honour upon the generation of the pious, when they were overtaken by the fiery stream, because they were carrying their aged parents upon their shoulders and seeking to save them. For when the river of fire drew 5near to them, it was parted asunder and turned part of its flame this way and part that way, and preserved the young men and their parents unscathed.)
To sum up the matter, as is the steersman in the ship, the charioteer in the chariot, the leader in the chorus, law in the city, the general in the army, even so is God in the 10Universe; save that to them their rule is full of weariness and disturbance and care, while to him it is without toil or labour and free from all bodily weakness. For, enthroned amid the immutable, he moves and revolves all things, where and how he will, in different forms and natures; just as the law of a city, fixed and 15immutable in the minds of those who are under it, orders all the life of the state. For in obedience to it, it is plain, the magistrates go forth to their duties, the judges to their several courts of justice, the councillors and members of the assembly to their appointed places of meeting, and one man proceeds to his meals in 20the prytaneum, another to make his defence before the jury, and another to die in prison. So too the customary public feasts and yearly festivals take place, and sacrifices to the gods and worship of heroes and libations in honour of the dead. The various activities of the citizens in obedience to one ordinance or lawful 25authority are well expressed in the words of the poet, 'And all the town is full of incense smoke, and full of cries for aid and loud laments.'
So must we suppose to be the case with that greater city, the universe. For God is to us a law, impartial, admitting not of correction or change, and better, methinks, and surer than those 30which are engraved upon tablets. Under his motionless and harmonious rule the whole ordering of heaven and earth is administered, extending over all created things through the seeds of life in each both to plants and to animals, according to genera and species.
To sum up the matter, as is the steersman in the ship, the charioteer in the chariot, the leader in the chorus, law in the city, the general in the army, even so is God in the 10Universe; save that to them their rule is full of weariness and disturbance and care, while to him it is without toil or labour and free from all bodily weakness. For, enthroned amid the immutable, he moves and revolves all things, where and how he will, in different forms and natures; just as the law of a city, fixed and 15immutable in the minds of those who are under it, orders all the life of the state. For in obedience to it, it is plain, the magistrates go forth to their duties, the judges to their several courts of justice, the councillors and members of the assembly to their appointed places of meeting, and one man proceeds to his meals in 20the prytaneum, another to make his defence before the jury, and another to die in prison. So too the customary public feasts and yearly festivals take place, and sacrifices to the gods and worship of heroes and libations in honour of the dead. The various activities of the citizens in obedience to one ordinance or lawful 25authority are well expressed in the words of the poet, 'And all the town is full of incense smoke, and full of cries for aid and loud laments.'
So must we suppose to be the case with that greater city, the universe. For God is to us a law, impartial, admitting not of correction or change, and better, methinks, and surer than those 30which are engraved upon tablets. Under his motionless and harmonious rule the whole ordering of heaven and earth is administered, extending over all created things through the seeds of life in each both to plants and to animals, according to genera and species.
401a
1 καὶ φοίνικες καὶ περσέαι
εχόμενα χρείας, πλάτανοι καὶ πίτυες καὶ πύξοι
«κλήθρη τ' αἴγειρός τε καὶ εὐώδης κυπάρισσος,»
5 αἵ τε καρπὸν ὀπώρας ἡδὺν ἄλλως δὲ δυσθησαύριστον φέρουσαι,
«ὄχναι καὶ ῥοιαὶ καὶ μηλέαι ἀγλαόκαρποι,»
τῶν τε ζῴων τά τε ἄγρια καὶ ἥμερα, τά τε ἐν ἀέρι καὶ
ἐπὶ γῆς καὶ ἐν ὕδατι βοσκόμενα, γίνεται καὶ ἀκμάζει καὶ
10 φθείρεται τοῖς τοῦ θεοῦ πειθόμενα θεσμοῖς· «πᾶν γὰρ ἑρπετὸν
πληγῇ νέμεται», ὥς φησιν Ἡράκλειτος.
1For vines and date-palms and peach-trees and sweet fig-trees and olives, as the poet says, and trees which, though they bear no fruits, have other uses, plane-trees and pines and box-trees, 'Alder and poplar-tree and cypress breathing sweet odours,' and 5trees which produce autumn crops pleasant but also difficult to store, 'Pear-trees and pomegranate-trees and apple-trees glorious-fruited,' and animals, both wild and tame, feeding in the air or on the earth or in the water, all are born and come to their prime and decay in obedience to the ordinances of God; for, in 10the words of Heraclitus, 'every creeping thing grazes at the blow of God's goad.'
Chapter 7 (401a12–401b29)
Εἷς δὲ ὢν πολυώνυμός ἐστι, κατονομαζόμενος τοῖς πάθεσι
πᾶσιν ἅπερ αὐτὸς νεοχμοῖ. Καλοῦμεν γὰρ αὐτὸν καὶ
Ζῆνα καὶ Δία, παραλλήλως χρώμενοι τοῖς ὀνόμασιν, ὡς
15 κἂν εἰ λέγοιμεν δι' ὃν ζῶμεν. Κρόνου δὲ παῖς καὶ χρόνου
λέγεται, διήκων ἐξ αἰῶνος ἀτέρμονος εἰς ἕτερον αἰῶνα· ἀστραπαῖός
τε καὶ βρονταῖος καὶ αἴθριος καὶ αἰθέριος κεραύνιός
τε καὶ ὑέτιος ἀπὸ τῶν ὑετῶν καὶ κεραυνῶν καὶ τῶν ἄλλων
καλεῖται. Καὶ μὴν ἐπικάρπιος μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν καρπῶν, πολιεὺς
20 δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν πόλεων ὀνομάζεται, γενέθλιός τε καὶ ἑρκεῖος
καὶ ὁμόγνιος καὶ πατρῷος ἀπὸ τῆς πρὸς ταῦτα κοινωνίας,
ἑταιρεῖός τε καὶ φίλιος καὶ ξένιος καὶ στράτιος καὶ
τροπαιοῦχος καθάρσιός τε καὶ παλαμναῖος καὶ ἱκέσιος καὶ
μειλίχιος, ὥσπερ οἱ ποιηταὶ λέγουσι, σωτήρ τε καὶ ἐλευθέριος
25 ἐτύμως, ὡς δὲ τὸ πᾶν εἰπεῖν, οὐράνιός τε καὶ χθόνιος,
πάσης ἐπώνυμος φύσεως ὢν καὶ τύχης, ἅτε πάντων αὐτὸς
αἴτιος ὤν. Διὸ καὶ ἐν τοῖς Ὀρφικοῖς οὐ κακῶς λέγεται
«Ζεὺς πρῶτος γένετο, Ζεὺς ὕστατος ἀρχικέραυνος·
Ζεὺς κεφαλή, Ζεὺς μέσσα, Διὸς δ' ἐκ πάντα τέτυκται·
God being one yet has many names, being called after all the various conditions which he himself inaugurates. We call him Zen and Zeus, using the two names in the same sense, as though we should say 'him through whom we live'. He is called 15the son of Kronos and of Time, for he endures from eternal age to age. He is God of Lightning and Thunder, God of the Clear Sky and of Ether, God of the Thunderbolt and of Rain, so called after the rain and the thunderbolts and other physical phenomena. Moreover, after the fruits he is called the Fruitful God, after 20cities the City-God: he is God of Birth, God of the House-court, God of Kindred and God of our Fathers from his participation in such things. He is God of Comradeship and Friendship and Hospitality, God of Armies and of Trophies, God of Purification and of Vengeance and of Supplication and of Propitiation, as the 25poets name him, and in very truth the Saviour and God of Freedom, and to complete the tale of his titles, God of Heaven and of the World Below, deriving his names from all natural phenomena and conditions, inasmuch as he is himself the cause of all things.
401b
1 Ζεὺς πυθμὴν γαίης τε καὶ οὐρανοῦ ἀστερόεντος·
Ζεὺς ἄρσην γένετο, Ζεὺς ἄμβροτος ἔπλετο νύμφη·
Ζεὺς πνοιὴ πάντων, Ζεὺς ἀκαμάτου πυρὸς ὁρμή·
Ζεὺς πόντου ῥίζα, Ζεὺς ἥλιος ἠδὲ σελήνη·
5 Ζεὺς βασιλεύς, Ζεὺς ἀρχὸς ἁπάντων ἀρχικέραυνος·
πάντας γὰρ κρύψας αὖθις φάος ἐς πολυγηθὲς
ἐκ καθαρῆς κραδίης ἀνενέγκατο, μέρμερα ῥέζων.»
οἶμαι δὲ καὶ τὴν Ἀνάγκην οὐκ ἄλλο τι λέγεσθαι πλὴν τοῦτον,
οἱονεὶ ἀνίκητον αἰτίαν ὄντα, Εἱμαρμένην δὲ διὰ τὸ εἴρειν
10 τε καὶ χωρεῖν ἀκωλύτως, Πεπρωμένην δὲ διὰ τὸ πεπερατῶσθαι
πάντα καὶ μηδὲν ἐν τοῖς οὖσιν ἄπειρον εἶναι, καὶ
Μοῖραν μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ μεμερίσθαι, Νέμεσιν δὲ ἀπὸ τῆς ἑκάστῳ
διανεμήσεως, Ἀδράστειαν δὲ ἀναπόδραστον αἰτίαν οὖσαν
κατὰ φύσιν, Αἶσαν δὲ ἀεὶ οὖσαν. Τά τε περὶ τὰς Μοίρας
15 καὶ τὸν ἄτρακτον εἰς ταὐτό πως νεύει· τρεῖς μὲν γὰρ αἱ Μοῖραι,
κατὰ τοὺς χρόνους μεμερισμέναι, νῆμα δὲ ἀτράκτου τὸ
μὲν ἐξειργασμένον, τὸ δὲ μέλλον, τὸ δὲ περιστρεφόμενον·
τέτακται δὲ κατὰ μὲν τὸ γεγονὸς μία τῶν Μοιρῶν, Ἄτροπος,
ἐπεὶ τὰ παρελθόντα πάντα ἄτρεπτά ἐστι, κατὰ δὲ τὸ
20 μέλλον Λάχεσις—[εἰς] πάντα γὰρ ἡ κατὰ φύσιν μένει λῆξις—κατὰ
δὲ τὸ ἐνεστὼς Κλωθώ, συμπεραίνουσά τε
καὶ κλώθουσα ἑκάστῳ τὰ οἰκεῖα. Περαίνεται δὲ καὶ ὁ μῦθος οὐκ
ἀτάκτως. Ταῦτα δὲ πάντα ἐστὶν οὐκ ἄλλο τι πλὴν ὁ θεός,
καθάπερ καὶ ὁ γενναῖος Πλάτων φησίν· «ὁ μὲν δὴ θεός,
25 ὥσπερ ὁ παλαιὸς λόγος, ἀρχήν τε καὶ τελευτὴν καὶ μέσα
τῶν ὄντων ἁπάντων ἔχων, εὐθείᾳ περαίνει κατὰ φύσιν πορευόμενος·
τῷ δὲ ἀεὶ ξυνέπεται δίκη, τῶν ἀπολειπομένων
τοῦ θείου νόμου τιμωρός», «ἧς ὁ γενήσεσθαι μέλλων μακάριός
τε καὶ εὐδαίμων ἐξ ἀρχῆς εὐθὺς μέτοχος εἴη.»
1Wherefore it is well said in the Orphic Hymns, 'Zeus of the flashing bolt was the first to be born and the latest, Zeus is the head and the middle; of Zeus were all things created; Zeus is the stay of the earth and the stay of the star-spangled heaven; Zeus is male and female of sex, the bride everlasting; Zeus is the 5breath of all and the rush of unwearying fire; Zeus is the root of the sea, and the sun and the moon in the heavens; Zeus of the flashing bolt is the king and the ruler of all men, hiding them all away, and again to the glad light of heaven bringing them back at his will, performing terrible marvels.'
I think also that God and nought else is meant when we speak of Necessity, which is as it were 10invincible being; and Fate, because his action is continuous and he cannot be stayed in his course; and Destiny, because all things have their bounds, and nothing which exists is infinite; and Lot, from the fact that all things are allotted; and Nemesis, from the apportionment which is made to every individual; and Adrasteia, which is a cause ordained by nature which cannot be escaped; and 15Dispensation, so called because it exists for ever. What is said of the Fates and their spindle tends to the same conclusion; for they are three, appointed over different periods of time, and the thread on the spindle is part of it already spent, part reserved for the future, and part in the course of being spun. One of the Fates is appointed to deal with the past, namely, Atropos, for nothing that 20is gone by can be changed; Lachesis is concerned with the future, for cessation in the course of nature awaits all things; Clotho presides over the present, accomplishing and spinning for each his own particular destiny. This fable is well and duly composed. All these things are nought else but God, even as worthy Plato tells us.
God, then, as the old story has it, holding the beginning and the 25end and the middle of all things that exist, proceeding by a straight path in the course of nature brings them to accomplishment; and with him ever follows Justice, the avenger of all that falls short of the Divine Law—Justice, in whom may he that is to be be happy, be from the very first a blessed and happy partaker!
I think also that God and nought else is meant when we speak of Necessity, which is as it were 10invincible being; and Fate, because his action is continuous and he cannot be stayed in his course; and Destiny, because all things have their bounds, and nothing which exists is infinite; and Lot, from the fact that all things are allotted; and Nemesis, from the apportionment which is made to every individual; and Adrasteia, which is a cause ordained by nature which cannot be escaped; and 15Dispensation, so called because it exists for ever. What is said of the Fates and their spindle tends to the same conclusion; for they are three, appointed over different periods of time, and the thread on the spindle is part of it already spent, part reserved for the future, and part in the course of being spun. One of the Fates is appointed to deal with the past, namely, Atropos, for nothing that 20is gone by can be changed; Lachesis is concerned with the future, for cessation in the course of nature awaits all things; Clotho presides over the present, accomplishing and spinning for each his own particular destiny. This fable is well and duly composed. All these things are nought else but God, even as worthy Plato tells us.
God, then, as the old story has it, holding the beginning and the 25end and the middle of all things that exist, proceeding by a straight path in the course of nature brings them to accomplishment; and with him ever follows Justice, the avenger of all that falls short of the Divine Law—Justice, in whom may he that is to be be happy, be from the very first a blessed and happy partaker!